CyberWorld

Hybrid cars are increasingly being touted as the cars of the future. They are supposedly extremely environment-friendly vehicles. The following article examines the relationship between hybrid cars and the environment.

A lot of people around the world are increasingly taking interest in the concept of hybrid cars. Hybrid cars are being promoted as a feasible solution to the world's fuel problems. At the same time, they are said to be less-damaging to the environment, as compared to cars which run entirely on gasoline. But before I move on to the relationship between hybrid cars and the environment, let me first introduce you to the concept of a hybrid car.

What is a Hybrid Car?
For those of you who are new to the concept of hybrid cars, here is a short introduction. A hybrid car is quite similar to a gasoline-powered car except that, in this case, there are two or more sources of power (unlike regular cars which have one common power source - gasoline or diesel). In a hybrid car, one source of power is generally gasoline, whereas the other power sources could be any of the following:

• Solar energy
• Pressurized or compressed air
• Electric batteries
• Fuel cells
• Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
• Liquified nitrogen
• Hydrogen
• Alternative fuels and biofuels
• Wind energy
• Manpower

From the above list, it is quite clear that there can be quite a few options when it comes to multiple power sources for a hybrid vehicle. Over the past few years, automobile companies around the world have been testing and trying out various power source combinations in an effort to come up with the best possible power source from the overall perspective of cost, effectivity and efficiency. You can read more on the Toyota Prius, which is an extremely popular hybrid car in the United States. Let us now have a look at the interrelation between hybrid vehicles and the environment.

Hybrid Cars and the Environment
Rather than bothering you with the technicalities regarding how does a hybrid car work, I will instead, focus on how and why they are beneficial to the environment. Are they really a savior to the world's fuel problems? Or are they all hype and no substance? How will they impact the environment and the prevailing pollution levels? Let us try and answer all these questions.

Positive Impact of Hybrid Cars on the Environment
How do hybrid cars help the environment? The answer to this question can be understood in its totality by comparing the effects of both, hybrid cars and gasoline-powered cars on the environment.

• Cars that run on gasoline or diesel emit tremendous amounts of chemical fumes, pollutants and other harmful byproducts. In comparison, hybrid cars are much gentler on the environment. Fewer and cleaner emissions is a major reason why hybrid cars are popularly known as 'green' cars. Reduced emission ensures lower pollution levels, something which is highly necessary in today's times.
• Another way in which hybrid cars benefit the environment is that they help in lowering noise pollution levels. Hybrid car engines go about churning the required amount of horsepower without any excessive roaring. When switched onto electric power mode, these cars are virtually silent when in operation. Imagine thousands of such silent cars on your city roads. That does go a long way in reducing the noise pollution, doesn't it? You can read more on electric cars.
• Global warming is one of today's most critical environmental issues and one that desperately needs to be addressed and resolved. In the recent past, the world has slowly but surely started witnessing the adverse effects of global warming. Switching over to hybrid cars on a massive global scale will be a big step and one which will significantly benefit the environment. Reduction in smoke and chemical emissions on a large scale basis will go a long way in tackling the issue of global warming.
• Though not an environmental issue as such, nevertheless, improved fuel efficiency is one of the other significant advantages of owning a hybrid vehicle. When it comes to mileage, hybrid cars outperform regular gasoline-powered cars by approximately 20 to 30 percent. That is quite a significant number in today's fuel scenario. Shutting off the engine when not required, re-using the energy spent in braking, advanced aerodynamics, better-designed tires, etc. are some of the other advantages that hybrid cars have to offer.
• Savings! Usage of hybrid cars translates into added savings. As they offer better fuel economy, you end up spending lesser on gasoline, thereby ensuring a few hundred dollars' worth savings every year. Also, the recent tax benefits being offered by the US government to hybrid car owners does make the decision to switch over to a hybrid vehicle all the more sensible, doesn't it?

Adverse Effects of Hybrid Cars on the Environment
Though not many, listed below are a few shortcomings or drawbacks of hybrid vehicles. A few of them are environment-related whereas a few are economy or society-related.

• Price-wise, hybrid cars cost a bit more as compared to regular gasoline-powered cars. This tends to become a deterrent for many car buyers. Confusion or lack of awareness is another issue that has so far worked against hybrid cars and concept cars. People are warming up to the idea of 'green' cars very slowly, and it is not something that has taken the world by storm as yet.
• Certain aspects of hybrid car batteries are also, in a way, harmful to the environment. Hybrid car batteries are typically nickel metal hydride batteries, which are not exactly environment-friendly. Also, they are bigger in size than regular lead-based batteries and the increased size makes them all the more cumbersome to handle.
• Finally, 'hybrid cars' is a relatively new technology and one that is still in a transition phase. It will take some time until the technology becomes thoroughly adaptable to the entire world.

This was a brief overview on the topic of hybrid cars and the environment. All said and done, it is quite safe to say that with a few tweaks here and there, this technology is the technology of the future, as far as cars and small-sized vehicles are concerned. Read more on pros and cons of hybrid cars.

Linseed oil, extracted from linseed or flaxseeds are found on the annual linseed plant which is of 1.2 meters in height with slender stems. The oil has many varied applications; medicinal as well as industrial. To know more about linseed oil uses, scroll down.

A natural oil, linseed oil color is anywhere between clear to yellowish when extracted from ripened dried seeds. Although both; linseed oil and flaxseed oil are extracted from the same flax seed, their treatment plays a vital role in deciding the use of the output. Linseed is heated and treated using chemicals, whereas flaxseed oil is more of a raw, cold-pressed linseed oil. Linseed oil uses are enormous, some of them have been listed below.

Linseed Oil Benefits
Nutritionally linseed oil is full of large quantities of vitamin B complex, zinc, lecithin and a large amount of omega-3 fatty oils, as compared to any other plant source. Besides health benefits, linseed oil has resolvent properties, which means it is capable of dissolving other substances, thereby making it highly useful for industrial applications.

Uses of Linseed Oil

Nutritional Supplement
Flax seed oil is highly nutritious in its raw, cold-pressed form. It contains high levels of omega-3 essential fatty acids and alpha-linolenic acid known for reducing inflammation of the arteries and helping in prevention of coronary heart diseases and arrhythmia. It also contains vitamin B, potassium, lecithin, magnesium, fiber, protein, zinc, and omega-6 and omega-9 essential fatty acids. With such a load of natural properties, the cardiovascular system, nervous system, immune system, circulatory system, reproductive system, and almost every body organ can benefit immensely from it. High alpha linolenic flaxseed oil has been granted the status of GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) by the FDA. Read more on:

• Benefits of Flaxseed Oil
• Flaxseed Oil Benefits for Women

Industrial Applications
The floor covering linoleum is made of ingredients such as wood dust, pine resin, wood flour, cork particles and other materials which are bound or held together with linseed oil. Putty, a sealant used for glass windows is also made of linseed oil mixed with chalk powder.

Linseed oil has been extensively used as an important drying oil, since ages. A common carrier in oil paint, it has the capacity to make the paints more fluid and transparent. Its various form; cold pressed, alkali refined, polymerised, etc are used in the oil painting medium, for it has good endurance. However, since it kind of yellows the paintings, painters avoid using this oil as a carrier oil while using bright colors. But a better form, like the sun bleaching makes the oil clear and transparent, when subjected to refining and bleaching process.

As a coat for wood finish, linseed oil gets soaked into the wood pores making the wood appear shiny, and yet retaining the wood surface to show its distinct grains. Unlike varnish that tends to drip or get lumpy, linseed oil smoothens the wooden surfaces. Linseed treated wood is resistant to denting and scratches. Most wear and tear damages can be treated with a re-application of the linseed oil. It is a traditionally favored wood finish, used as a protective coating for the raw willow wood of cricket bats, or billiards or pool cue shafts and wood furniture. Products coated with linseed oil retain high quality and durability.

Boiled Linseed Oil
Even though the name is suggestive of linseed oil being boiled, it is actually not boiled. When certain additional solvents are added to linseed oil to dry it up more quickly, it is known as boiled linseed oil. Boiled linseed oil uses include it being a natural wood finish and preservative, increased durability, quality of finish and resistant to surface damage. Some grades of linseed oil are also mixed with mineral spirits.

Linseed oil uses outdo quite a number of other oils. And it is easily available as a dietary supplement (high alpha linolenic flaxseed oil) in most health stores, and as a paint binder and wood polish in hardware stores.

The most unique characteristic of alkali metals is that their properties exhibit the ideal group trends of periodic table. Find out about some more interesting alkali metals properties from this article.

All those chemical elements that belong to the group I of the periodic table are known as alkali metals. As alkali metals are highly reactive elements, they are mostly found in the form of compounds and not in an elemental form. The chemical elements which are categorized into alkali metal group are arranged in increasing order of atomic number as: Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Caesium (Cs) and Francium (Fr). Hydrogen is placed at the top of the alkali metals group but most of its properties are very different from those of alkali metals. Only under extremely high pressure, hydrogen shares some properties with alkali metals. To know more read on:

• Interesting Facts about Sodium
• Interesting Facts on Potassium

Physical Properties of Alkali Metals

The physical properties of alkali metals are very similar with other metallic elements. However, some of the alkali metal properties are very different. Like, the densities of alkali metals are much lower when compared to other metals. Unlike other metals, all the elements of alkali metal group are soft substances and can be cut with the help of a knife. In any given period of the periodic table, the atomic radii of the alkali metals is largest. Alkali metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Both the boiling point as well as the melting points of alkali metals are very low. Except for caesium, which has a light golden color, alkali metals are silvery white in color. Other typical alkali metal properties are that they are lustrous and have ductile and malleable properties. Actually, alkali metals have a shiny surface but they get tarnished very easily, as a result of oxidation with the atmospheric oxygen and their appearance becomes dull. On burning, alkali metals give out colored flames. Two of the alkali metals, potassium and rubidium exhibit weak radioactive properties. To get some more information on the properties of alkali metal sodium read on sodium properties - chemical and physical properties of sodium.

Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals

The atom of any given alkali metal has only one electron in its outermost orbit. Each of the alkali metals are ready to lose this lone pair of electron to form a univalent cation. The chemical reactivity of alkali metals increase as we move from the top to the bottom of the group. Like any other metals, ionization potential of the alkali metals is very low. In fact, alkali metals have the lowest ionization potential among the elements of any given period of the periodic table. Electronegativity of alkali metals is also of a very low range. When alkali metals react with non metals, they form ionic salts. Following are some of the important reactions of alkali metals:

Reaction with Oxygen
Any alkali metal when comes in contact with air or oxygen, starts burning and oxides are formed in the process. At the end of the chemical reaction, lithium gives lithium monoxide(LiO), sodium gives sodium peroxide (Na₂O₂) and other alkali metals give superoxides (that is, each alkali metal atom forms bonds with two oxygen atoms). Oxides of alkali metals are basic in nature and are soluble in water and form alkali metal hydroxides.

Reaction with Hydrogen
When alkali metals react with hydrogen, then ionic hydrides are formed. The ionic nature of the hydrides increase as we move down from lithium to caesium. The stability of the hydrides thus formed, reduces with the increase in the atomic numbers of alkali metals. These hydrides have strong reducing properties.

Reaction with Halogens
Alkali metals react with elements of halogen group of the periodic table to form halides. Except lithium iodide all other halides are ionic in nature. To some extent, lithium iodide is covalent in nature as the bonding occurs between the smallest cation and the largest anion. As a result, the large iodide anion gets polarized. All the halides of alkali metals readily dissolve in water except lithium fluoride (LiF).

Reaction with Water
Alkali metals react with water to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas is released in the process. The reaction is so vigorous in nature that the hydrogen gas produced during the reaction catches fire. Lithium is the only alkali metal that reacts slowly with water. The hydroxides of alkali metals possess strong basic properties. The strength of the basic properties of alkali metal hydroxides increase with rise in atomic number of the alkali metals.

Knowledge of all these distinctive alkali metal properties helps us to prepare a large variety of essential alkali metal compounds. Sodium hydroxides, sodium chloride and sodium carbonate are some of the most useful compounds of alkali metals that are used in various industries.

The radioactive isotopes were first used in medicine for diagnostic procedures during the early 1930s. This eventually laid the foundation for nuclear medicine. This article will cover all the information regarding the procedures and uses of radioactive isotopes in medicine.

You must have heard of diagnostic procedures that allow physicians to explore the parts and organs of the body with minimum invasion and also be able to view the organ functions in vivo. If you are wondering what are radioactive isotopes and their use in nuclear medicine, this article will help clear the doubts in your minds. Know more on radioactivity.

Radioactive Isotopes
Isotopes are a two or more types of a chemical element and have the same atomic number and position in the periodic table. They share similar chemical behavior but have different atomic mass and physical properties. All chemical elements have one or two isotopes. Radioactive isotopes are those isotopes that have an unstable number of protons and neutrons. This instability is created by the neutron activation wherein, a neutron captured in the nucleus of an atom leads to an excess of neutron rich nucleus. Cyclotrons are used to manufacture proton rich radioactive isotopes. The nucleus of a radioactive isotope emits particles like alpha, beta or positron and photons like gamma rays, to achieve energetic stability during a radioactive decay.

What is Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear medicine is the branch of science under medicine, that uses radiation to give information regarding the functioning of a specific organ in the human body or to treat a disease. This collected information gives accurate and immediate diagnosis of the patient's illness. Radioactive isotopes in medicine are used to form images of the thyroid, bones, heart, liver and many other organs. Radioactive isotopes used in medicine have also helped in treating diseased organs and tumors. Know more on cancer treatment: radiation therapy.

The most commonly used radioactive isotope in medicine all over the world is technetium-99, that accounts for 80% of nuclear medicine procedures. In the US alone, over 18 million nuclear medicine procedures are recorded per year.

In 1930s, scientists used radioactive isotope to measure the dose of administered radioactive iodine required when localized in the thyroid. A Geiger counter was used to evaluate the radiation emitted from the neck and make further diagnosis. This use of iodine radioactive isotopes in medicine was merely speculative. The real breakthrough came with the invention of gamma scintillation camera in the 1950s, by Hal Anger, an American engineer. This camera helped make the use of radioactive isotopes in medicine, in diagnosing and treatment of possible illness.

The first radioactive isotopes used in medicine were a tool to diagnose, detect and treat thyroid disorders and goiter treatment. There was an extensive research conducted in the field of nuclear medicine, that lead to many discoveries and invention of ultra sharp diagnostic methods and imaging systems. There are 5 Nobel prizes awarded for various discoveries and inventions in nuclear medicine. The Positron Emission Tomography or the PET scan was the first diagnostic tool invented by Peter Alfred Wolf that used radioactive isotopes in medicine. This invention was followed by CT scan (computerized tomography) and then MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). Let us have an overview of the various uses of radioactive isotopes in medicine. Know more on CT scan with contrast.

Radioactive Isotopes Used in Medicine for Diagnostic Techniques
Most of the diagnostic techniques use radioactive tracers that emit gamma rays from within the body. These are short-lived tracers that are linked to chemical compounds, that help in scrutinizing specific physiological processes. The mode of administering these tracers is by injections, inhalation or orally. Single photons are detected by a gamma camera, that gives view of organs from different angles. The image is build up by the camera from the point through which the radiation is emitted. A computer helps enhancing the image that is viewed by the physician on a screen and helps him detect any abnormality in the organ.

In a PET scan, a positron-emitting radionuclide is introduced by an injection, that is accumulated in the target tissue. With the decay of the radionuclide, the emitted positrons that combine with the nearby electron, result in the emission of gamma rays that are easily identifiable, traveling in opposite direction. A PET camera detects these rays and gives a precise indication of their origin. The most common role of PET scan radioactive isotopes in medicine is fluorine-18, that is used as a tracer in oncology. It is the most effective non-invasive method to detect and evaluate cancers. This method is also used for cardiac and brain imaging.

PET and CT scans have been combined to make a new procedure that provides 30% better diagnosis. It helps provide important information on diseases, varying from dementia to cardiovascular and even cancer. The use of radioactive isotopes in medicine helps detect the position and concentration of radioactive isotopes in the body. This helps detect organ malfunction if the isotope is taken up partially by the organ known as 'cold spot' or in excess called as 'hot spot'. When a series of images are taken over a time period, it helps in detecting organ malfunction by the unusual pattern or rate of isotope movement.

Radioactive Isotopes Used in Medicine for Radionuclide Therapy (RNT)
The use of radioactive isotopes in medicine involves radionuclide therapy. Cancerous cells can be controlled or even eliminated by irradiating the tumor growth region. Teletherapy, also known as external irradiation is carried out by gamma beam emitted from radioactive cobalt-60 source. In many developed countries, the use of versatile linear accelerators is being utilized.

Internal radionuclide therapy involves administering small radiation source like a gamma or beta emitter in the target area. Brachytherapy or short range therapy mainly uses Iodine-131 to treat thyroid cancer. It also helps treat non-malignant thyroid disorders. In case of brain cancer or breast cancer, Iridium-192 is preferred. These isotopes are produced in a wire form, that are introduced through a catheter into the target area. The implantation wire is removed once the appropriate dose has been administered. Advantage of brachytherapy is that it is more target specific, less exposure of radiation to the body and is cost effective. Know more on breast cancer radiation side effects.

Lethal dose of radiation is given to the patient to kill all the defective bone marrow cells, before replacement with healthy bone marrow cells, in case of treatment of leukemia. Stronium-89 and samarium 153 are used to provide relief to pain induced by cancer. The new radioactive isotope being used for pain therapy is rhenium-186.

To control dispersed cancers, Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) is begin used. In this, a short range of highly energetic, alpha emissions are allowed to enter the targeted cancer cells after a carrier has taken the alpha-emitting radionuclide to the target area. There are positive results from laboratory studies, that have lead a way for clinical trials for diseases like leukemia, cystic glioma and melanoma.

Radioactive Isotopes Used in Medicine for Biochemical Analysis
Radioactive isotopes can be easily detected even if they are present in low concentration. This has helped in the use of radioactive isotopes in medicine, for labeling molecules of biological samples in vitro. There are many tests that help detect the constituents of blood, serum, urine, hormones, antigens and drugs by linking them with radioactive isotopes. This type of tests are called as radioimmuni-assays.

Radioactive Isotopes Used in Medicine for Diagnostic Radiopharmaceuticals
All organs in the body act differently chemically due to the presence of specific chemicals absorbed by the organ. This knowledge has helped develop diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals, to help examine the blood flow to the brain, functioning of the heart, lungs, liver functions, kidneys, excess growth of bones, etc. it also helps in predicting the effects of surgery and assess changes since the start of treatment. This non-invasive technology helps in observing the organ functions and diagnosing abnormalities without the patient experiencing any form of discomfort. The most widely used radioactive isotope is technetium-99m, that has the ability to disappear without a trace after completion of the test, in a short time. Thallium-201 chloride or technetium-99, is used in Myocardial Perfusion Imaging for detection and prognosis of coronary artery diseases.

Radioactive Isotopes Used in Medicine for Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals
Radiation has the ability to weaken or destroy malfunctioning cells under certain medical conditions. A radioactive element that can generate radiation is localized on the target organ with the help of its usual biological path or attaching an element to a suitable biological compound. Beta-radiation is the most commonly used radiation to destroy damaged cells. This is known as radionuclide therapy (RNT) or in simple words, radiotherapy. Iodine-131 is used to treat abnormal conditions like hyperthyroidism. Phosphorus-32 is used to control a disease called 'Polycythemia vera', where an excess of red blood cells are produced by the bone marrow. An extensive research is being carried out all over the world, to find new ways to incorporate the use of radionuclides in curing many more diseases. Know more on chemotherapy and medical tests and tools.

There are many radioactive isotopes that are made in nuclear reactors and some in cyclotrons. Neutron rich radioactive isotopes that are produced through nuclear fission are made in nuclear reactors. Proton-rich radioactive isotopes in medicine are produced in cyclotrons. There are many factors that govern the selection of a radioactive isotope in medicine. The dosage and half-life requires study of many factors. The use of radioactive isotopes in medicine is increasing day by day with accurate results. It also helps in early diagnosis and is a mode of treatment for patients, especially, for those suffering from cancer and tumors. Before undergoing a radiotherapy, make sure you speak to your physician regarding all the matters related to the therapy. Till date, the use of radioactive isotopes in medicine have proved to be very helpful and favorable for innumerable patients, with a positive outcome.

Sodium bicarbonate is a very useful chemical compound with a crystalline appearance. Sodium bicarbonate uses have revolutionized many production processes and have also resulted in the effective development of many different products and other substances. To know more about sodium bicarbonate uses, read on.

Sodium bicarbonate is basically a chemical compound, which is also often known as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda and bicarbonate of soda. Students of science and chemistry have also nicknamed sodium bicarbonate as sodium bicarb, bicarb soda. Sometimes it is also simply known as bi-carb. The Latin name for sodium bicarbonate is Saleratus, which means, 'aerated salt'. Sodium bicarbonate is a component of the mineral Natron, also known as Nahcolite which is usually found in mineral springs, the only natural source of sodium bicarbonate.

Uses of sodium bicarbonate are varied and also very useful. Sodium bicarbonate is used in many different fields that range from chemical industries to household applications. This compound is also used extensively in the manufacture of medicines. Among the many benefits of sodium bicarbonate is its ability to eliminate most of the bacteria and fungi and also act as a disinfectant. These sodium bicarbonate benefits make it a very important ingredient of medicines and cleaning agents. When a chemistry student is asked, 'what is sodium bicarbonate used for?', he is bound to give us a list that goes as follows.

Index

• Sodium Bicarbonate Properties
• Sodium Bicarbonate Production
• Medical Uses
• Industrial Uses
• Anti-Pollutant
• Household Uses
• Other Bi-carb Uses

Sodium Bicarbonate Properties

The following are some chemical properties of Sodium Bicarbonate

Molecular Formula	NaHCO3
Molar Mass	84.0066 g/mol
Density	2.159 g/cm3
Odor	Odorless
Melting Point	270°C (decomp)
Solubility in Water	7.8 g/100 mL (18°C) and 10 g/100 mL (20°C)
Solubility	Insoluble in Alcohol
Acidity	10.3
Refractive Index	1.500

If you want to know the physical properties and appearance of sodium bicarbonate, just hold a pinch of baking powder on your palm and observe it. You will notice that the soluble white anhydrous substance has a crystalline appearance and a translucent white shade. You can also get some sodium bicarbonate which has a different texture of grains from a chemistry laboratory. Though the toxicity of raw sodium bicarbonate brought straight out of the lab is very low, one should never consume it.

Sodium Bicarbonate Production

Sodium bicarbonate is basically produced with the help of a process that is known as the Solvay process. Solvay process is a reaction between calcium carbonate, sodium chloride, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The reaction takes place in water. There are basically two reactions that take place in the Solvay process that produce the sodium bicarbonate formula; NaHCO₃. The following are the formulas of reactions that produce sodium bicarbonate.

In the first step the reaction between carbon dioxide and an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide result into the formation of sodium carbonate.

CO₂ + 2 NaOH → Na₂CO₃ + H₂O

In the next step, the additional carbon dioxide, sodium bicarbonate and water produce the final product, sodium bicarbonate.

Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O → 2 NaHCO₃

Sodium bicarbonate occurs very rarely in the form of minerals that can be easily mined and processed. Among the rare sources of sodium bicarbonate, the most well known source is Piceance Basin, Colorado, which quenches the North American continent's demand for sodium bicarbonate. The sodium bicarbonate in this region is basically extracted from the formation of nahcolite beds.

To know more about the components of sodium bicarbonate you may refer to

• Sodium: The Element
• Sodium Properties: Chemical and Physical Properties of Sodium

Medical Uses

The following are the many sodium bicarbonate uses in the field of medicine.

Indigestion: Sodium bicarbonate is one of the well known antacid that is used by large number of pharmaceutical companies to make medicines that treat mild indigestion problems. The most common medicine is an aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate that is used to treat minor digestive disorders such as acid indigestion and heartburn.

Metabolic Acidosis: Medicines that are used to treat mild forms of metabolic acidosis like chronic renal failure and renal tubular acidosis also contains a significant amount of sodium bicarbonate.

Urinary Alkalinization: Sometimes sodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient of medicines that are used in urinary alkalinization, to treat Aspirin overdose and uric acid renal stones.

Acidosis: An aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate is also used to treat acidosis. This solution is administered with the help of Intravenous therapy. The solution is basically administered when a drop in the level of sodium or bicarbonate ions is noticed in the blood.

Hyperkalemia: One of the most well known sodium bicarbonate uses is the treatment for Hyperkalemia.

Toiletries: Sometimes manufacturers of toiletries use sodium bicarbonate as an ingredient for preparing mouthwashes as it is an excellent cleanser of teeth and gums. It also tends to reduce the production of acids in the mouth and prevents oral infection. Non-fluoride tooth pastes also contain a significant amount of sodium bicarbonate. As a result of the anti-fungal properties of sodium bicarbonate, it is also used in shampoos and deodorants. The anti-fungal properties, tend to highlight the sodium bicarbonate benefits even more, making it a very effective ingredient.

There are numerous sodium bicarbonate tablets manufactured by pharmaceutical companies. However one must never consume such medications before consulting a doctor.

Industrial Uses

The following are some industrial uses of sodium bicarbonate.

When asked about the sodium bicarbonate uses, we often tend to forget the many industrial uses of the compound.

Textile Industry: One of the most prominent uses of sodium bicarbonate is the treatment of wool and silk fabrics. The textile industry, extensively uses sodium bicarbonate for dyeing and printing operations. The leather industry also uses sodium bicarbonate as a neutralizer of dyeing agents in tanning processes.

Leather Industry: In addition to the textile and leather industries sodium bicarbonate is also used by the chemical industries around the world. One of the prominent uses of sodium bicarbonate as a catalyst and purifier in the manufacturing process of complex plastics and polymers.

Rubber and Plastic: Another very prominent use of sodium bicarbonate is that it is used in the manufacturing process of rubber and plastics. The sodium bicarbonate that is used in the rubber and plastic manufacture is basically used as a blowing agent as it releases carbon dioxide. The release of carbon dioxide is very effectively used to shape the object that is made from the rubber and plastic.

Anti-Pollutant

The following are some of the sodium bicarbonate uses, as an anti-polluting agent.

Sodium Bicarbonate is also a very effective anti-pollutant. Among the other uses of sodium bicarbonate, the use as an anti pollutant is very effective because sodium bicarbonate can be easily, used for the biological control of waste water. The compound basically controls biological oxygen demand, maintains alkalinity in waste water and also controls sulphide odors. It is also a very effective collector of sulfur dioxide, and is used in flue gas desulphurization( a method of treating industrial gases that are released into the atmosphere).

To know more about pollution you may read more on:

• Environmental Pollution
• Water Pollution
• Air Pollution

Household Uses

Baking: Among the household sodium bicarbonate uses, the one that we all must definitely should know, is that it is used to bake delicious breads and cakes. The baking powders, contain a large quantity of sodium bicarbonate and is always accompanied by a small quantity of acid phosphate. During the baking process, some of the ingredients like phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, buttermilk, cocoa, yogurt and vinegar react with sodium bicarbonate in the baking powder giving rise to a substantial amount of carbon dioxide that makes that cake or bread porous on the inside and pretty fluffy and soft. Sometimes, sodium bicarbonate is also used to soften peas, during boiling.

To know more about baking soda and sodium bicarbonate you may also refer to Baking Soda Uses.

Cleaning Agent: Many household cleaning agents actually constitute sodium bicarbonate as a very important ingredient. Most of the cleaning agents that are used for the removal of tarnish, tend to contain a small amount of sodium bicarbonate.

Other Bi-carb Uses
The following are some of the miscellaneous, sodium bicarbonate uses.

One of the prominent use of sodium bicarbonate is that it is used in the manufacture of dry chemical based fire extinguishers. These fire extinguishers can be easily and effectively used to put out fires caused as a result of grease based and electricity based fires.

In many cases, the anti fungal properties of sodium bicarbonate have made it a very effective outdoor cleaning agent and also an agent to raise the pH levels (level of acidity or basicity). Thus many of the disinfectants and antiseptic agents that are used in spas and swimming pools have a content of sodium bicarbonate in them.

Librarians and book sellers are also known to have used sodium bicarbonate as a remedy for the musty smell that prevails in the pages of books.

Thus it can be concluded that sodium bicarbonate is a very useful compound and has a large variety of uses. The sodium bicarbonate uses range from industrial to domestic. This compound is also a very important agent that helps us to maintain our hygiene and also helps us to get rid of nasty fungus and bacteria.

Silver nitrate is a very useful chemical compound that has many uses, and is also a highly versatile precursor to most of the other silver compounds. Ancient alchemists named silver, as 'luna', thus making silver nitrate, 'lunar caustic'. To know more about silver nitrate uses read on...

This year’s annual commemoration of achievements in space technology will be held the week of October 4-10.

In 1999, the United Nations General Assembly ruled that each year they would hold a World Space Week, an international celebration of technology and science, during the first full week of October. The month of October wasn’t a random selection; two pivotal events in space exploration occurred during the month of October:

October 4, 1957 saw the launch of the first Earth satellite made by humans. The launch of Sputnik is widely considered to be the beginning of space exploration and man’s first foray into the heavens.

October 10, 1967 marks the signing of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

World Space Week is a public event that anyone can attend. Coordinated by the United Nations, the week’s festivities are also supported by the World Space Week Association and coordinators in countries around the world. Not only does the celebration educate people about the benefits of space exploration, it also demonstrates that there is tremendous support by the public for space programs. It encourages the awareness of using space for development of sustainable economic benefits, and helps to promote institutions and organizations around the world that are involved in focused on space and technology. Perhaps most importantly, the week-long gathering of space scientists, historians, and innovators helps to foster a sense of international cooperation in education about space outreach.

World Space Week is an excellent venue for teachers to use in promoting an interest in math and science among their students. The official website at http://www.worldspaceweek.org offers a free downloadable Teacher’s Activity Guide. The World Space Week Association hands out a variety of educational awards every year, to encourage teachers and students to participate in the annual event.

Schools can participate in World Space Week by organizing a local event, volunteering to work with the World Space Week Association, helping to coordinate World Space Week, or even just by encouraging teachers and students to work on space-related activities during the week.

This year’s World Space Week will serve up a galaxy of highlights, including a Space Festival and International Astronautical Congress, held in Daejeon, Korea; celebrations of the 10th anniversary of World Space Week in about 60 nations around the world; a week-long celebration of aerospace engineering throughout the Hawaiian islands; people and students being able to send messages aloft into space using SentForever, and an exciting broadcast from the international space station by Guy Lalibere, founder of Cirque du Soleil. Read more interesting topics about space world mentioned below:

• Satellites
• Space Travel
• Space Shuttle Launch
• International Space Station

World Space Week can be celebrated by anyone, anywhere, in any way that educates, supports, promotes, honors, or just excites people about space and technology. How will you celebrate?

The NASA mission of bombarding the moon with two rockets, in search of water ice was completed successfully on Friday.

NASA's Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) launched the rocket Centaur, aimed at the moon's south pole at 1.5 miles per second on Friday. The rocket bombarded the moon and created twin impacts on the lunar surface in search of water. LCROSS and the spent rocket Centaur, separated about 54,000 miles above the lunar surface at approximately 6:60 pm PDT, on Thursday, to create an impact. The Centaur hit the moon's surface at around 4:31 am on Friday and created an impact that lasted for approximately 4 minutes as observed by the instruments aboard the LCROSS. Approximately at 4:36 am, Friday, the lunar surface faced another the impact from LCROSS.

Scientists will study and analyze all the data observed by the spacecraft's instruments to examine if there is water ice present on the moon. Anthony Colaprete, LCROSS principal investigator and project scientist at NASA's Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California, stated, "The LCROSS science instruments worked exceedingly well and returned a wealth of data that will greatly improve our understanding of our closest celestial neighbor. The team is excited to dive into data."

According to Doug Cooke, associate administrator for the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate at NASA, it was a great day for science and exploration. Daniel Andrews, LCROSS project manager at Ames',said that, "It has been an incredible journey since LCROSS was selected in April 2006," said Andrews. "The LCROSS Project faced a very ambitious schedule and an uncommonly small budget for a mission of this size. LCROSS could be a model for how small robotic missions are executed. This is truly big science on a small budget."

Other observatories who have captured both impacts, will be sharing their data with the LCROSS science team for further analysis. It has been estimated by the LCROSS team that the data will require several weeks to analyze before any definitive assessment of presence or absence of water ice is conclusive.

Guy Laliberte has big plans for the astronauts on board the international space station during his trip through the galaxy.

The rounder of Cirque du Soleil, Guy Laliberte, blasted off into the heavens on September 30 in a Soyuz capsule, headed for the international space station. Accompanying him were Maxim Surayey, a Russian cosmonaut, and American astronaut Jeffrey Williams. Laliberte’s dream of being "the first clown in space" is finally coming true.

Before entering the capsule, Laliberte put on a red clown nose, smilingly blew kisses to his many supporters and fans, and then held both of his hands over his heart in the classic mime’s gesture of affection. Friends and family standing on the ground below spontaneously broke into singing "Rocket Man" by Elton John. Laliberte had brought along novelty noses for his other crew members and promised to the assembled crowd that he plans to tickle them while they are sleeping.

"I’m a person with a pretty high spirit," said Laliberte weeks earlier when talking to the media about his impending flight. On October 9 he will host the first multimedia event ever broadcast from the station, to highlight the crisis of drinking water problems suffered around the world. Pulling out a handful of clown noses, he said, "This is the symbol of my mission, but it will also remind me that I should never forget I was once a kid." Laliberte, born in Quebec, is probably going to be the final private individual paying a tourist fare to visit the station. NASA is going to be mothballing their fleet of space shuttles, and Soyuz craft will be relied on for astronauts to travel back and forth to the international space station.

Laliberte, a 50-year-old billionaire, has paid $35 million for his once-in-a-lifetime highwire act. So far only six others have made the trip to the space station, paying between $20-45 million apiece. Laliberte’s venture is not the least bit surprising to those who know him; he began his career as a fire-breather in a traveling troupe of other street performers and eventually used his risk and brash adventurousness to create Cirque du Soleil and turn it into an international phenomenon. Laliberte, whose net worth is estimated at nearly $2.5 billion, was one of only a handful of billionaires who actually increased their fortune last year.

A small gathering of family and friends watched monitors anxiously as they waited for news that the launch had been successful. Laliberte’s partner, Claudia Barilla, a former model, watched the capsule take off wearing her own yellow closen nose and holding their child in her arms. With tears running down her face, she told reporters that she is very happy for him, and it is amazing that he is able to realize his dream. When the announcement came that the rocket had reached orbit, the crowd burst into cheers. "Now we know he’s up there," said Barilla. Laliberte will return to Earth in 12 days.

In 2008 astronomers made some fascinating discoveries thanks to bigger and better telescopes and an ever-increasing interest in the heavens.

Planetary science made some leaps and bounds in 2008 that many people weren’t even aware of. Many of the findings were right in our own backyards, in Mercury and Mars, and others were way out in space beyond our solar system. Astronomers discovered at least 50 new planets, called "exoplanets," this year. "It’s been a very exciting year for exoplanet discoveries," said Michael Liu, an astronomer at the University of Hawaii. "The big picture is that a wide variety of new technologies, both instruments on existing telescopes and new dedicated telescopes, are really allowing astronomers to do much more sensitive measurements, and thus leading to a real bonanza of discoveries," Liu told SPACE.com.

So far there have been more than 300 exoplanets discovered. Many astronomers seem convinced that it’s only a matter of time before they spot another planet Earth. In November, two teams of astronomers reported that they had taken photographs of exoplanets. Geoffrey Marcy of the University of California, Berkeley, calls the images "the most spectacular thing in 2008." Speaking about the Hubble Space Telescope’s image of the planet called Fomalhaut b., Marcy added, "In my own professional opinion this is by far the most definitive picture of a planet ever taken."

With the regular reports on NASA’s Phoenix Mars Lander, which touched down on the red planet in May, our planetary neighbor has gotten a lot of attention. There were also reports continuing to come from NASA’s Reconnaissance Orbiter and the Mars Exploration Rover twins Spirit and Opportunity. The Orbiter has not imaged nearly 40% of the planet, and continues to capture and send back fascinating pictures that help astronomers learn more about the planet.

One of the primary goals of these missions is to find signs of past or present water- the main ingredient for supporting life. When the Phoenix Lander collected water ice near the north pole of Mars this year, the astronomy world was overwhelmed. Earlier in the year, Spirit has found deposits of silica in Gusev Crater, which scientists believe suggests that hot water once flowed through the soil in hydrothermal vents, which may have harbored life. And if life did exist there at one time, the silica could have preserved fossils.

One of the most sci-fi sounding research projects of 2008 was the exploration of a mysterious "force" scientist call "dark energy." This force was discovered about 10 years ago and has been expanding the universe at an increasing pace. Scientists admit that their research is still in very preliminary stages, but a new method used this year confirmed the existence of dark energy and suggested that it is stifling the growth of galaxies. The basic concept is that in an expanding universe dominated by dark energy, rather than galaxies mixing and mingling, they fly away from each other.

Now that Pluto is no longer a planet, Mercury has taken its place as the smallest planet in our solar system. Mercury had remained cloaked in mystery until early 2008 when NASA’s Messenger probe made its first trek around Mercury, beginning a mission to take images of the entire planet. The first images indicated clear evidence of the existence of volcanoes. Pictures showed lava flows in the Caloris basin and a volcano larger than the state of Delaware. The thousands of other images sent by Messenger could shed light on other mysteries of Mercury, including the planet’s core, which makes up about 2/3 of the planet’s mass. Some astronomers purport that a huge impact hundreds of millions of years ago may have stripped Mercury of its original surface.

Astronomers predict that the upcoming year will bring us even closer to discovering a planet that could be Earth’s twin. NASA’s Kepler mission, scheduled to launch in March, will search for rocky planets about the size of Earth that orbit within the habitable zone of their host stars where liquid water and life may exist. While they continue their research, imaging, and postulating, the rest of the world can only watch and wait, gazing upward and dreaming of what might be out there.

As the name suggests, the Horsehead nebula appears to be in the shape of a horsehead, and is no doubt a masterpiece by the creator of the universe. Read on to know more about the nebular theory and the Horsehead Nebula.

The beautiful galaxy offers unlimited scope of exploration to mankind, equipped with the latest technologies. Many nebulas like Ant, Boomerang, Crab, Orion and Horsehead have fascinated the scientists, interested in astronomy and space explorations. Like all the other nebulas, the Horsehead Nebula, when seen in the recorded pictures, gives a small glimpse of the mesmerizing beauty of the universe. Here are a few basics of the nebular theory and some interesting facts about the Horsehead nebula.

Nebular Theory
Nebular theory is an account of the miraculous origin and evolution of the solar system. Being just an emphatic speculation, it cannot be demonstrated or proved by observations or mathematical equations. German philosopher Immanuel Kant, was the first person to propose the nebular hypothesis in 1775, and the theory was modified in 1796 by Pierre Laplace. The theory helped the scientists to form a hypothetical model of the star and planet formation. According to this theory, a nebula contracts under the force of gravity, eventually flattening into a spinning disk with a central bulge. A protostar forms at the nebula's center and the matter condenses around the protostar (bulged at the nebula's center). Planets were formed from the spinning matter in the disk. With condensing and cooling of the rotating nebula, its great mass became the Sun.

The nebular theory also explains the formation and rotation of the planets around the Sun. The nebular hypothesis has indicated general tendencies of the laws of nature, and has not been proved to be inconsistent with any fact. It is the only theory which accounts the origin and conservation of the sun's heat, and has also been useful for promoters of space research and exploration.

Facts about Horsehead Nebula
The Horsehead Nebula is a part of the optical nebula 1C434, and was first recorded in the year 1888 at the Harvard College Observatory. It is also known as Barnard 33 and is reminiscent of a horse's neck and head, against a glowing background. The nebula consists of a cloud of ionized gas, which is lit from within, by a number of newly formed stars. It is also observed that a dark cloud containing interstellar dust lies right in front of it. The dust absorbs light from these ionized clouds and small red spots seen at the base of the Horsehead tend to betray the presence of the hidden protostars.

The Horsehead Nebula is around 400 parsecs (1,300 light-years) far from the Sun and has a diameter of approximately 4 parsecs (13 light-years). Its calculated mass is approximately 250 solar masses, and the extremely dense clouds projecting in front of the ionized gas provide a beautiful pink glow to the appearance of the nebula. The red glow is because of the hydrogen gas and is ionized by the nearby bright Sigma Orionis star. Sigma Orionis is also responsible for exciting the emission nebula. The dark color of the Horsehead is because of the thick dust and dense clouds of gas emitted from the nebula are funneled by a strong magnetic field. Bright spots in the Horsehead Nebula's base are the young stars in the process of forming.

Horsehead Nebula attracts scientists from around the world by its captivating beauty and its interesting resemblance with the head of a horse.

Some were interested in the latest discoveries regarding fossilised giraffes, while others were eager to find out what more could be learned of the biting behaviour of Tyrannosaurus rex from their remains.

There was a flutter of excitement over the news that somebody was going to say something very exciting about feathered dinosaurs – and, it must be said, no little interest in the location of the nearest "proper British pub" .

What may be the largest gathering of fossil hunters to ever convene in one place arrived in Bristol at the 69th annual meeting of the august body known as the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (SVP).

More than 1,000 scientists who are making a life's work out of the study of fossils of creatures with backbones – from the most impressive of dinosaurs to the tiniest of fish – were meeting, greeting and talking about their finds.

It is a significant moment for the SVP, which was founded in 1940 by a group of 34 palaeontologists and now has more than 2,000 members across the globe. Until now, the organisation has always met in the US but fossil hunting has become a global game, especially since China began to take an interest in the secrets hidden in its rocks.

To reflect this change – and to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species – the SVP decided to hold its annual bash in Darwin's homeland.

Professor Mike Benton, chair of the host committee and himself a palaeontologist, called the gathering a "momentous meeting". "This is the first time it has ever met in the old world. There are people from every corner of the world - north America, south America, China, Japan, Europe."

Benton was keen to emphasise that it was not just about people showing off their new amazing finds of spectacular fossils. It was more about trying to find out more about how evolution happens.

Another theme that was emerging as the three-day conference got into full swing was an interest in using fossils to find out how climate change had affected the world over time.

Benton said he was impressed by the variety of people who had turned up. Undoubtedly, as you walked around the precincts of Bristol University, there were some who looked as if they had been chipping away at rocks in some remote desert for half a century and still had dust in their beards and sandals. A delegate from Texas wore the almost obligatory cowboy hat.

But there were also many younger people, among them 17-year-old Emma Hoffmann from New York who will be presenting her research on the teeth of dromaeosaurid, a bird-like dinosaur.

"I have had a passion for palaeontology ever since I took a trip to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City when I was four," she said.

One of the most eagerly awaited talks is being given by Xu Xing, a Chinese palaeontologist, who is said to have found out something particularly fascinating in north-eastern China. None of the officials are saying just what ahead of his presentation tomorrow.

He said: "I'm really happy that this meeting has become more international, a meeting for palaeontologists all over the world. For scientists like myself, it's important to come. You have a chance to talk to colleagues about your work, to share your discoveries and knowledge. It's about contributing to the theory of evolution."

China is a particularly mouth-watering country for palaeontologists as it is largely uncharted. When new mines and quarries are opened, more fossils drop out of the rocks.

As at any conference, the fringe events can be as interesting, at least to the outsider, as the main agenda. Today, for example, a lunch meeting will discuss "women in palaeontology – different countries, different glass ceilings".

There is a charity auction in which delegates can bid for such delights as a cast of the skull of an early crocodile or the partial skeleton cast of "Lucy" – the fossil of a human-like creature found in Ethiopia in the 1970s.

In the corridors and coffee areas, some students were angling for jobs – the recession hits fossil hunting too – while others were hijacking experts to help them with their work. Such as Bristol student, Brian Machin, whose thesis is on the theory that a type of monkey found in South America got there by floating from Africa on a raft. "It's nonsense of course," he said, "But it's hard to prove it's nonsense."

And at the end of the day it was on to one of those typically British pubs to carry on talking about fossilised giraffes and dinosaurs with feathers and monkeys sailing on rafts.
© Guardian News & Media 2008
Published: 9/23/2009

Astronomy, critical thinking, philosophy and pseudo-science are covered at Camp Quest.

One of the most popular exercises is the invisible unicorn challenge. The children are told there are two invisible unicorns who live at Camp Quest but that they cannot be seen, heard, felt or smelt, and do not leave a trace. A book about them has been handed down through the ages but it is too precious for anyone to see.

All counsellors – as the adults are called – are said to be staunch believers in these unicorns.

Any child who can successfully prove that the invisible unicorns do not exist is rewarded with a prize: a £10 note with a picture of Charles Darwin on it signed by Richard Dawkins, or a "godless" $100 bill, printed before 1957 when "In God We Trust" was added to paper currency in the US.

Since this challenge began in 1996, the prize has been unclaimed.

The camp's director, Samantha Stein, said that the exercise had elicited all sorts of interesting responses from the children about the burden of proof. One child had insisted that it was up to the counsellors to prove the unicorns did exist. Another said it was just impossible to prove.

Stein said that the exercise was not about trying to bash the idea of God – just to make the children think critically and rationally.
© Guardian News & Media 2008
Published: 7/29/2009

The Laboratory
in the News

Carbon Capture Technique Goes Green
Major efforts are under way to reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from burning fossil fuel. CO₂ is a heat-trapping gas (also known as greenhouse gas) that must first be separated from its source, a step known as “capture,” before it can be sequestered in an underground reservoir. Laboratory scientist Amitesh Maiti has developed a screening method that would use ionic liquids—a special type of molten salt that becomes liquid under the boiling point of water (100°C)—to separate CO₂ from its source. Chemists recently became interested in ionic liquids as solvents because they have almost no vapor pressure and do not evaporate, even under high-temperature conditions.

Over the last few years, several ionic liquids have been experimentally tested and found to be efficient solvents for CO₂, providing data that could be useful in optimizing the choice of ionic liquids for CO₂ capture. “However,” says Maiti, “each new experiment costs time and money and is often hindered because a specific ionic liquid may not be readily available.” Maiti developed a quantum-chemistry-based thermodynamic approach to compute the chemical potential of a solute (CO₂ in this case) in any solvent at an arbitrary dilution. The computations yielded accurate solubility values in a large number of solvents, including ionic liquids. Maiti confirmed these computational results by comparing computed solubilities with experimental values that have been accumulated.

Maiti used this method to predict new solvent classes that would possess CO₂ solubility nearly two times as high as the most efficient solvents experimentally demonstrated. The accuracy of the computational method will allow scientists to see useful trends, which could potentially lead to the discovery of practical solvents with significantly higher CO₂ capture efficiency than what is used today. The research appeared as the cover article in the July 2009 issue of ChemSusChem, a new journal focused on chemistry and sustainability.
Contact: Amitesh Maiti (925) 422-6657 (maiti2@llnl.gov).

Climate Models Agree on Human “Fingerprints”
Laboratory scientists and a group of international researchers have found that climate model quality does not affect the ability to identify human effects on atmospheric water vapor. The team first tested each of 22 models individually, calculating 70 different measures of model performance. These metrics provided insight on how well the models simulated today’s average climate, its seasonal changes, and geographical patterns of climate variability. The information enabled the researchers to grade and rank the models in a multitude of ways and to identify many groups of “top 10” and “bottom 10” models out of the full set of 22 models. From each of these groups, the scientists obtained estimates of the response of water vapor to human factors (the “fingerprint”) and the “noise” of natural climate variability. They then repeated the search for a human effect on water vapor with more than
100 combinations of climate model fingerprint and noise data sets. In every case, a water vapor fingerprint arising from human influences could be clearly identified in the satellite data.

“Climate model quality didn’t make much of a difference,” says Ben Santer of Livermore’s Program for Climate Modeling and Intercomparison. “Even with the computer models that performed relatively poorly, we could still identify a human effect on climate. The physics that drive changes in water vapor are very simple and are reasonably well-portrayed in all climate models.” The atmosphere’s water vapor content has increased by about 0.4 kilograms per cubic meter per decade since 1988, and natural variability alone cannot explain this moisture change, according to Santer. “The most plausible explanation is that it’s due to human-caused increases in greenhouse gases,” he says. More water vapor—which is itself a greenhouse gas—amplifies the warming effect of increased atmospheric levels of CO₂.

This new study links Livermore’s “fingerprint” research with its longstanding work in assessing climate model quality. It tackles the general question of how to best make use of the information from a large collection of models, which often perform very differently in reproducing key aspects of present-day climate. The team’s findings appeared in the August 10, 2009, online issue of the Proceedings of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences.
Contact: Ben Santer (925) 422-3840 (santer1@llnl.gov).