CyberWorld

Beat Making Software - Make Your Own Music Beats From Home

It is incredible what the internet has brought us. And if you are a music lover looking to make your own music beats, you don't have to go anywhere. There is no need to buy any instruments. You can just stay home and make unlimited unique beats that you can call your own using a beat making software.

Really. You don't need to buy any expensive sequencers, mixers, drum machine etc. to make your own beats. You can get everything in an all-in-one beat making software and start making your own beats.

What are the benefits of using Beat Making Software?

The conventional way will requires you to go to a studio with your musicians and instruments to record your music beats. So, just imagine how much that is going to cost you; you will have to pay for your musicians, the studio, the instruments upfront without even an assurance that you can breakeven with your recordings.

If you are doing all by yourself without a studio, here are the things that you will need to buy (the old way): mixing desk, synthesizers, MPC, and much more. That could be the main reasons why a lot of music aspirer and enthusiast fail without even have the chance to start; they couldn't afford it!

On the other hand, with a beat making software, all you need is a computer. You might however need to upgrade to a better sound system for your computer and you are set to go to make your own music beats.

Unlike the conventional instruments that might take you weeks if not months to learn, a beat making software is very intuitive with a friendly user interface that you can start using without much instruction. I created 5 original beats the same day I bought my beat maker and they sound just as good as studio quality.

You can get a good one for about $30 to $50 which is comparatively low to the conventional instruments. The software will come with detailed tutorials and some even with video tutorials that show you step by step. So, experience is not required to make your own music beats with these beat makers. Anyone with an interest to make their own beats is now able to do so without much fuss.

Beat making software has revolutionized the way beats were produced and given us the opportunity to showcase our talents that would have otherwise never be heard by the world. Click here to watch this video on how quickly and easily you can make your own music beats with a beat making software.

Latin Americans are a rich and diverse part of the US population and they majorly consist of people of the Spanish and Portuguese origins. Latin Americans are also called as 'Latinos'. Hispanics are basically the Spanish-speaking people, living in the United States and make up 15% of the American population. The Latinos or Hispanics represent a unique blend of culture, thoughts, and dialects that have a common origin.

The economic landscape of Internet marketing in the US is nowadays, shaped by the idea of investing more in the Hispanic online marketing strategies. So, what is Hispanic marketing? Hispanic internet marketing is a marketing strategy that caters to the needs of the people speaking the Spanish dialect. Spanish people are avid users of the Internet and making it more friendly and useful for them, is indeed a great business idea. According to a research, there are nearly 20 million Hispanic internet users in the US and their number is expected to rise to approximately 21 million by 2010.

What are the various areas that the Hispanic marketing companies are looking to target? Keyword research is the most important area that various online marketing companies mostly target. Spanish keywords provide an easy route of access to a large section of the Spanish speaking population who are searching about their own culture, architecture and commerce. Even in Latin America, there are 20 Spanish-speaking nations, so the scope of a versatile and user-friendly search engine using Spanish language, can be of great significance.

Internet advertising is the most effective tool that converts readers into buyers. An excellent advertisement is one that is able to connect to its audience and helps the business to scale new heights. Online advertisements reach to wider audiences, situated in different countries and states. In the Latin American countries, and even in the other parts of US, advertisements for the Spanish audience can be lucrative for companies. The pay per click advertising (PPC) tactics can be very fruitful, as the increased number of clicks can increase their revenues drastically. With the Hispanic internet users increasing rapidly, this area can indeed be very profitable.

Throughout Spain, and also among Spanish speaking people in the US, online education, media and entertainment-related Spanish websites are already very popular. With more innovation in this segment, companies can attract more potential readers. Spanish dictionaries, thesaurus, Spanish jokes, puzzles, games and poetry are various searches that Spanish people frequently look for. Designing Spanish language websites can be very interesting and popular among the Spanish audience. Famous movies, documentaries, songs and concerts of Spanish origin can be gathered in a database can easily be made popular among Hispanics.

Music especially the Spanish folk music, pop music and the regional music from every nook and cranny of the country can be stored and made public on the best designed websites. Besides making profits and earning big bucks for online marketing companies, this would also benefit the cultural diversity of Spain, making it more profound and lively. What are the profits from the business perspective? Well, it will get the audience feel connected with their roots and they can experience a national bonding. This will earn the company a goodwill and they may also discover long-term audience or readers for their website.

Today, blogging has become an integral part of the daily life of Hispanics. Be it the campaigning during elections, business analysis, educational purpose or just a way of self-expression, it rocks everywhere. Often, people who are beginners in learning English language, find it difficult to express themselves on blogs of a different language. Or, even if one just has a wish to write in his/her own language, then what? It is here that the idea of bilingual blogs can be very productive. Bilingual blogs are popular and can be funny as well as interesting.

Hispanic internet marketing is a dynamic part of the US online marketing segment. Internet marketing companies can research, analyze and understand the various facets of Hispanic internet marketing. With every passing day, more Hispanics are going online and any investment in this marketing strategy would surely reap rich dividends.

Internet has now become a major success tool for all firms. The statistics show an unprecedented growth in the number of internet users over the past decades and the numbers won't stop. They will go on increasing, thanks to the the new revolution in the cyberspace. Yes! You guessed correctly, internet shopping and internet advertising are the buzz words in the internet world today. With plenty of famous sites offering some real experience of quick, reliable and discounted shopping packages, people are ready to get anything under this universe, just by a click of a button. In the fierce competition of online sales and shopping, it is mandatory that the seller knows how to sell stuff online. How to sell stuff and that too online? Well, let's discuss some handy tips on how to sell stuff online.

How To Sell Stuff Online: Tips
Some of the tips on how to sell stuff online are mentioned below.

Look In For Websites That Rock!
There are a number of websites that have changed the dynamics of the internet marketing. These websites give you can opportunity to advertise your products and services, so that they can reach to a wider market. Google Adwords and Google Adsense have ruled the internet market by their brilliant strategies and amazing reach to the millions and millions of global audience. Some others websites like Ebay and Amazon have carved a niche on their own! If you wish to sell your products targeting many customers, then you have got to formally register on these sites and pay for the advertisements as per their plans. You can advertise your products on websites that will help you link your products to other websites also.

Go For Email Marketing!
Email marketing techniques are a novel option, if you wish to advertise your products. There are many email marketing best practices that can guide you through with a better business strategy, if you are opting for email marketing.

Social Networking is the Order of The Day!
There is no doubt in the fact that the social networking sites are accessed by more than half of the internet users. There are many social networking websites that can advertise the products by linking them in their websites. However, online marketing on social networking sites should not annoy the user by stuffing the site with advertisements only! The idea is to give relevant links and products, instead of just stuffing the page with any advertisements. Try to link the advertisements through games, graphics and interesting fun to do things on these sites!

Banner Advertising is The Perfect Idea!
The idea of banner advertising is a very creative approach, that aims to provide the users some entertainment as well as help businesses advertise their products on a large scale. In banner advertising, the web developers embed an advertisement onto the webpage and hence advertise the products. The users are provided with certain pop ups of games, video music and various other features, that can entertain them and indirectly highlight the product of the firm.

Go for the Craiglist!
Craiglist is a centralized network that features classifieds free advertising features. One can use 'craiglist' easily for selling the products.

And Of Course There's Blogging!
Blogging is the 'hip' thing nowadays! It's a real and widely popular means of business and personal communication. So, if you have to make your product reach maximum people, then blogging is a bright idea.

There are various other modern advertising methods that can help you sell your product and gain profits for your company. Knowing how to sell stuff online is all about understanding the potential of the market and using some innovative strategies, that can help you advertise your products online with creativity.

The validity check on the label claim of an off the counter drug like Ibuprofen proves to be an exciting but simple project. It helps the student understand the nature of a carboxylic group, the quantitative determination of the drug based on the number of carboxylic groups through a simple acid base titration. Ibuprofen is made up of covalently-bonded carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. 2 CH3 molecules are single-bonded to a CH molecule. The CH molecule, is bonded to a carbon atom that forms a 6-sided ring of carbon atoms. Another CH molecule is single-bonded to a carbon atom on the other side of the ring. Inside the ring there are 3 double bonds between carbon atoms.

Then another CH3 molecule and a COOH molecule are both single bonded to the CH molecule on the right. Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) which is commonly used for relieving muscular and skeletal pain. Ibuprofen is a white powder belonging to the propionic acid derivatives, with a melting point of 74 - 77° C. It is only slightly soluble in water but readily soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol. Ibuprofen acts so as to inhibit the action of the enzyme cyclooxygenase, which catalyses the transformation of fatty acids to prostaglandins. Thus the synthesis of prostaglandin is inhibited and this is the cause for the analgesic and anti-inflammatory action of the drug. Because it is non-steroidal, it is widely used as it does not upset the hormonal balance in the body.

Its anti-inflammatory, analgesic (pain relieving) and antipyretic (fever reducing) actions, are comparable to those of aspirin and it is commonly taken in tablet form for the relief of mild to moderate pain such as headache, toothache, and migraine as well as symptoms of fever. Ibuprofen tablets are very useful for relieving signs and symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, to reduce joint swelling and improves the action of joints. It is used to relieve postoperative pain and morning stiffness and has also been shown to slow down pulmonary decline in cystic fibrosis sufferers. Since Ibuprofen is available for over-the-counter sale, the label claim for the amount of drug in each tablet is of importance.

The Ibuprofen tablets are weighed, crushed and a known amount is solubilized to prepare a standard 100ml solution of known concentration. If the added fillers and additives interfere, the solution is filtered. A known aliquot of ibuprofen solution is titrated against a standard solution of sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein as an indicator. For most of the experiments tablets of reputed pharmaceutical as well as generic drugs closely match the label claim.

Acknowledgments- The experiments to validate the label claim of Ibuprofen were carried out by Sheryl Fernandes and Cynthia Jeyakumar of Grade XII of R.N. Podar CBSE Sr. Secondary School, Santacruz (W).

The word 'chemistry' has derived its name form an Egyptian term kēme (chem) which means 'earth'. The study of chemistry began several thousand years ago. It is believed that alchemy is the basis of modern day inorganic chemistry. Many a times scientists refer to chemistry as the central science, as its study is essential for various other branches of science, like physics, biology, geology, astronomy etc.

Chemistry Terms and Definitions Glossary

Chemistry, as a field of study, is interesting as well as a vast subject. There are several branches of chemistry. Students studying in schools and colleges learn chemistry as a part of their science curriculum. Those students who wish to study chemistry at the advanced levels must know, that for better understanding of the overall chemistry literature, you should have clear idea about the fundamental concepts of chemistry terms and definitions. Some of the important aspects of chemistry include: study of atomic and molecular structure of various chemical substances, their characteristics, types of reactions, types of bonds formed by different elements, methods used for extraction of metals and nonmetals, different laboratory techniques etc.

Chemistry Definitions - Glossary of Chemistry Terms and Definitions

Over a period of time, chemistry definitions have undergone several changes due to development of new theories and discovery of new chemical substances and phenomena. In this section, we have included those basic chemistry terms that are relevant to modern chemistry. The chemistry glossary terms arranged in an alphabetical order are given below:


A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z


A

Absolute Zero: This is the lowest temperature on any temperature scale. On the kelvin scale, it is the zero point and on Celsius scale it is -273.15 degree Celsius. It is the lowest temperature at which the kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules becomes minimum. Absolute temperature can be attained theoretically only. It is not possible to achieve the temperature by any artificial or natural means.

Acid: An acid is a chemical substance which has a tendency to release hydrogen ions or protons and accept electrons. In an aqueous state, an acid readily produces a large amount of H+ (aq) ions. Most of the strong acids get ionized almost completely in the dilute aqueous solution, whereas, the ones that are weak acids, ionize partially.

Activated Charcoal: A carbon which is porous in nature and possess high adsorption power. It is useful for removing toxic substances from air and water. Learn more on: how to make activated charcoal and activated charcoal benefits.

activation energy: During a chemical reaction, the minimum amount of energy which is needed by the reactants to get converted into products is known as activation energy.

Acyl Group: It is a functional group of organic compounds which is usually obtained by replacing the hydroxyl group (--OH) from any carboxylic acid.

Addition Reaction: A type of chemical reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms is added to a double or triple bond compound, in order to change it into a single and double bond compound respectively.

Alcohol: An organic compound which consists of a hydroxyl group (--OH) attached to a carbon atom of an alkyl group chain.

Aldehyde: A functional group of organic compounds, consisting of one atom each of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Here, the carbon atom forms a single bond with the hydrogen atom and is bonded to the oxygen atom with the help of a double bond.

Aliphatic: An organic compound in which the carbon atoms are bonded together in the form of a chain. It does not have aromatic rings.

Alkali Metals: Elements which belong to Group IA of the periodic table.

Alkaline Earth Metals: Elements which belong to Group IIA of the periodic table. Learn more about: alkaline earth metals.

Alkanes: Alkanes are a series of organic compounds, consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms, where all the carbon atoms are bonded to each other only by single bonds.

Alkenes (Olefins): Unsaturated organic compounds which have at least one carbon-carbon double bond.

Alkynes: A type of unsaturated hydrocarbon compound which has at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.

Allotrope: Two or more elements with same physical components but different structural forms. The physical and chemical properties of various allotropic forms of an element are totally different from each other.

Alpha Particle: A positively charged particle with a charge of 2+. It contains two protons and two neutrons, like the nucleus of a helium atom.

Alum: It is a white crystalline compound of aluminum. Hydrated aluminum potassium sulfate is commonly known as alum. Its chemical formula is Kal(SO₄)₂.12H₂O.

Ammonia: Ammonia is an inorganic compound made of nitrogen and hydrogen atoms and is chemically represented by the formula NH₃.

Anion: A negatively charged particle or ion.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Aromatic hydrocarbon is a type of hydrocarbon compound, which has at least one structural ring of 6-carbon atoms.

Atom: The smallest structural unit of any chemical element is called an atom.

Atomic Number: The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom.

Aufbau ('building up') Principle: It is the law that governs electronic configuration in the orbitals of an atom.

Avogadro's Number: Also known as Avogadro's constant. It is the number of particles present in one mole of any substance. It is equal to 6.023x10^23.

B

Back Titration: A technique of analytical chemistry, used to analyze the concentration of a given substance. It is carried out on those substances that do not exhibit any valid result in the usual titration method.

Baeyer's Reagent: A chemical agent consisting of cold dilute potassium permanganate solution and is used in organic chemistry to detect the existence of unsaturated bonds (double or triple bonds) in a compound.

Balanced Equation: A chemical equation, where the number of atoms and the charge of every element of the reactants and the products are the same or are in a balanced state.

Balmer Series: Balmer series is used to define a set of spectral lines emitted by the hydrogen atoms, due to movement of its electrons from one energy level to the another.

Base: A chemical substance that readily donates electrons during formation of a bond.

Beta Particle: Negatively charged particles emitted by the nucleus of radioactive elements.

Bohr atom: The model of an atom formulated by Neils Bohr. He predicted that the negatively charged electrons of the atom revolve around the nucleus of an atom. To know more read: timeline of atomic structure.

Boiling Point: The temperature at which the atmospheric pressure and the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal is called the boiling point.

Boyle's Law: Boyle's law states that at constant temperature the pressure and volume of a given amount of gas is inversely proportional to each other.

Branched Chain Alkane: Those compounds of alkane that form branches, as a result of bonding the main chain of the molecule with functional groups are called branched chain alkanes.

Brownian motion: The zigzag motion of the tiny particles, suspended in a fluid substance is called Brownian motion.

Buffer Solution: A solution that shows resistance towards change in pH value. Basically, it is either made of a weak acid and a conjugate base or a weak base and a conjugate acid.

Butanol: An organic compound which consists of four carbon atoms bonded with each other by single bonds and one alcohol or hydroxyl group.

C

Catalyst: A substance which when added to a chemical reaction, increases the rate of the reaction without participating in it.

Catenation: The ability of an element to form a series of covalent bond with itself and make long chains is known as catenation.

Cathode Ray: Cathode ray can be defined as a flow of electrons released by the negative electrode or cathode in a vacuum tube.

Cation: A positively charged particle.

Chain Reaction: A series of reactions in which the product or by product of the reaction initiates further reaction.

Charle's Law: Charle's law established a relation between the volume and temperature of gaseous substances. According to the law, at constant pressure the volume of an ideal gas increases with rise in temperature.

Chemical Bonds: A force of attraction that binds two or more atoms together, in order to form a compound is known as a chemical bond.

Chemical Element: An element is a chemical substance made up of only one type of atoms. For more information read: chemical element.

Chemical Reaction: The process by which atoms of one or more chemical substances interact with each other, to produce new products with different composition and properties. Learn more on: types of chemical reaction.

Combustion: Combustion is a chemical process in which a reaction takes place between a fuel and an oxidizer and a large amount of heat and light is released.

Covalent Bond: A type of chemical bond in which sharing of electrons takes place between the reacting atoms.

Crystallization: The process which leads to the formation of regular shaped crystals naturally or artificially.

D

D -Transition elements (metals): Elements that have incomplete d-orbitals and belong to the d-block of the periodic table.

D-Orbitals: The third energy level of an atom which can be occupied by electrons. Every d-orbital consists of five set of orbitals.

Dalton's Atomic Theory: Dalton's atomic theory states that elements are made up of very small particles called atoms. It also states that atoms of every element are identical.

Deliquescent: The property of a substance to readily absorb the moisture present in atmosphere and converting into liquid is known as deliquescent.

Deuterium: Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen which is heavier than common hydrogen. This is because, deuterium has one neutron in its nucleus which is not present in the nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen.

Displacement Reaction: A type of chemical reaction in which one element of a compound is displaced by another, to form a new compound.

Distillation: The physical process of separation of various components of a mixture of liquids, on the basis of their different boiling points is called distillation. Learn more on: types of distillation.

Donor Atom: A donor atom is the one that shares or donates its electrons to a Lewis acid to form a coordination complex.

Double Bond: A type of covalent bond in which double pairs of electrons are shared between two reacting atoms.

Double Salt: A salt that consists of two or more cations or anions. When in a dissolved state, double salt ionizes to form two different salts but it becomes one substance as it is crystallized.

Dry Cells: An electrochemical cell in which the electrolyte is not in a liquid form but is in the form of a paste with low moisture content.

E

Electrodes: In an electrochemical cell, an electrode can be defined as a surface, on which the transfer of electrons takes place.

Electrolyte: An electrolyte is a chemical substance that splits up into ions in aqueous state or molten state and acts as a medium to conduct electricity.

Electron: Electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle that revolves around the nucleus of an atom. To know more read: what are subatomic particles.

Electron Affinity: Electron affinity of an atomic or molecular particle is the energy change that takes place as a result of addition or deletion of an electron from a neutrally charged atom or molecule.

Electron Configuration: The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is known as electron configuration.

Electronegativity: In a covalent bond between two dissimilar atoms, electronegativity can be defined as the capacity of the atom of an element to draw the valence electrons towards itself.

Emulsion: An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquid substances where the components are non-miscible with each other.

Endothermic Reaction: A type of chemical reaction which absorbs heat energy during the process.

Enthalpy: Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property of a substance used to quantify the heat content of its any given amount.

Entropy: Entropy is a thermodynamic property, used to measure that energy of a given system which cannot be utilized to carry out any external work.

Exothermic Reaction: A type of chemical reaction that releases heat energy during the process.

F

Fermentation: In biochemistry, fermentation is a process in which large complex organic molecules are broken down into simpler forms, where the enzymes act as catalysts.

First Law of Thermodynamics: According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one energy form to another.

Fluorescence: The visible light emitted by a substance, after absorption of light of a different wavelength (mostly longer wavelength than the visible light).

Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels are exhaustible source of energy, rich in hydrocarbons. They are formed as a result of decomposition of organic matter for millions of years in an anaerobic condition, under high temperature and pressure. Coal, oil, natural gas are examples of fossil fuels. Read more about fossil fuels.

Fractional Distillation: A distillation process, where a liquid mixture whose components have varying boiling points are separated using a fractioning column in the distillation apparatus. Learn more on this in: fractional distillation.

Frasch Process: A technique used for mining and extraction of sulfur, the element from its minerals, from the underground deposits.

Free Energy, Gibbs Free Energy: In a thermodynamic system with constant temperature and pressure, free energy or Gibbs free energy is the measure of the total amount of energy that can be utilized for doing useful work.

Free Radical: Those atoms or ions or molecules which have one or more number of unpaired electrons in them are known as free radicals. Presence of free electrons in a radical makes it highly reactive substance.

Freezing Point Depression: The phenomenon that causes lowering of freezing point of a liquid solvent substance, on addition of another compound into it is known as freezing point depression.

Fuel Cells: Fuel cells are devices that can produce electrical energy by converting the chemical energy of any particular fuel. To gather more information on fuel cells read on: fuel cells.

Functional Group: In the molecule of an organic compound, a certain set of atoms characterize the chemical properties of the organic molecule. These groups of atoms are known as functional groups.

G

Galvanized Steel: The steel whose surface has been coated with a layer of zinc in order to prevent corrosion is known as galvanized steel. Know more about galvanized steel in: use of galvanized steel.

Gamma Ray: Gamma rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation with high energy and penetrating power and are released by atoms of radioactive elements. As it has a high penetrating power, gamma rays are used for radiation therapy to treat cancer. To know more read: radiation

Gangue: The impurities that come with the minerals of an ore, during its mining are known as gangue.

Geiger-Müller counter: Geiger-Müller counter is a special device used for detection of various ionizing radiations like beta particles, gamma rays etc.

Gel: Gel is a jelly like substance where a solid is suspended in the liquid dispersion medium.

Geometrical Isomers: Compounds with same number of atoms and same functional groups but different geometric structures are called geometric isomers.

Graham's Law: Graham's law establishes the relationship between molecular effusion of a gaseous substance and its molecular weight. It states that the rate of effusion of any particular gas is inversely proportional to the square root of molecular weight of the gas.

Graphite An allotropic form of element carbon, Graphite, is a good conductor of electricity and possess good lubricating properties.

Ground State: The state in which an atom or molecule or ion has the lowest energy, is termed as ground state. It signifies a stabilized form of that particle.

Group (Periodic Table): In the periodic table, the vertical columns in which elements with similar properties are placed are known as groups.

H

Haber Process: This process is used for industrial preparation of ammonia. Here, nitrogen and hydrogen gases are reacted under high temperature and pressure, in presence of an iron catalyst to produce ammonia.

Half-Life Constant: In nuclear chemistry, half life constant can be defined as the time period required for a radioactive element, to reduce to half of its actual number of atoms, due to radioactive decay. Learn more on: half life in nuclear chemistry.

Heat of Formation ( Δhf): The amount of heat absorbed or released due to formation of a pure chemical compound, by the reaction of its constituting elements, under constant pressure is known as heat of formation.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the momentum as well as the position of an electron in an atom cannot be determined precisely at the same time.

Henry's Law: As per Henry's law, when the temperature remains constant, the solubility of a gas in a liquid substance is directly proportional to the partial pressure exerted by the gas on the surface of the solution.

Hess' Law: The law states that the energy change that takes place during a chemical or physical process, does not depend on the total number of intermediate steps needed for the completion of the process.

Heterogeneous Mixture: A heterogeneous mixture is made by combining two or more substances with different structure or phases.

Homogeneous Mixture: A type of mixture made up of substances that have uniformity in terms of composition and property.

Homologous Series: A series of organic compounds, that can be represented by a general chemical formula. Members of any homologous series have similar chemical properties.

Hund's Rule: Hund's rule is a guiding principle for filling up of p, d and f subshells of an atom. As per the rule, the pairing of electrons in the same sub-shell begins only after all the orbitals are filled by single electrons.

Hybridization of Orbitals: The term hybridization is used to define the merging of one set of atomic orbitals, for the formation of new orbitals.

Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are simple organic compounds that are made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.

Hydrogenation: A chemical reaction, where addition of hydrogen takes place to double or triple bonded unsaturated organic compounds, in presence of a catalyst. In this way, the organic compounds get converted into saturated ones.

I

Ideal Gas: An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that completely follows the ideal gas law.

Ideal Gas Law: The law states that the product of the volume of the gas and its pressure, is proportional to the amount of the gas and its temperature. Ideal gas law evaluates the behavior of various gases by establishing the relation between the variables like pressure, volume and temperature of a gas. In the equation form, it is given by: pV=nRT where p is absolute pressure, V is the volume of the given gas, T stands for absolute temperature, n is the quantity of gas and R is the gas constant.

Ideal Solution: An ideal solution is the one whose enthalpy is zero. In such a solution, the intermolecular forces between the solvent molecules and different components of solutes are the same.

Inert Gas: Any gas that is inert in nature and does not readily react with other chemical elements is known as inert gas.

Inorganic Compound: The class of compound that does not have any carbon hydrogen bonds in them is called inorganic compounds. The origin of an inorganic compound is mineral and not any living organism.

Internal Energy: Internal energy can be defined as the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and all other forms of energy that exist inside metals or crystals or molecules.

Ion: An atom or a molecule carrying an electric charge is called an ion. It is formed as a result of losing or gaining of electrons.

Ionic Bond: A kind of chemical bond formed as a result of attraction between oppositely charged particles or ions. To learn more read: ionic bonding.

Ionization Potential: Also known as ionization potential, it can be defined as the least amount of energy required for the removal of an electron from a gaseous atom or molecule in its ground state.

Isomers: Molecules whose molecular formulas are same but the structural formulas are different are known as isomers. To learn more read on: isomers.

IUPAC: It stands for International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. It is an international organization that is responsible for setting up standards for naming of elements and compounds and also for symbols and physical quantities related to chemistry.

K

K Capture: A decay mode of radioactive isotopes, where a proton of the nucleus is converted into a neutron, by capturing an electron from the K shell of the same atom.

Ketone: An organic compound that consists of a carbonyl (C=O) functional group. The carbon atom of the carbonyl group are also bonded with two alkyl groups or two aryl groups or one alkyl and one aryl group.

Kinetic-Molecular Theory: Also called collision theory. Kinetic molecular theory defines the various properties of different gases like temperature, pressure, volume etc., on the basis of the composition and movements of their molecules. To know more read on: collision theory and reaction rates - explaining the factors of collision theory.

L

Lattice energy: The amount of energy needed to separate the constituent ions of an ionic solid is called lattice energy.

Law of Chemical Equilibrium: According to the law, in any reversible reaction at equilibrium state, the rate of forward reaction is directly proportional to the rate of reverse reaction.

Law of Combining Volumes (Gay-Lussac's Law): In a chemical reaction, that is taking place under constant pressure and temperature, the ratio of the volumes of the reacting gases and the resultant products is defined in whole numbers.

Law of Conservation of Energy: According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy present in a closed system will always be constant. It can be summarized as, the energy of a closed system can neither be created nor destroyed.

Law of Conservation of Matter: Law of conservation of matter states that the total mass of a system in a closed state, remains unchanged despite the changes that are taking place within the system.

Law of Definite Proportions (Law of Constant Composition): The law states that in any chemical compound, the mass of the constituent elements is always present in the same proportion.

Law of Multiple Proportions: The law states that when any two elements combine to give two different compounds by similar types of bonds, then the ratio of those elements is of simple whole numbers.

Law of Partial Pressures (Dalton's Law): The law states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the summation of the partial pressures of various gaseous components of the mixture.

Le Chatelier's Principle: During a chemical reaction in the equilibrium state, if any change is brought about in the conditions like, change in temperature or pressure or concentration of the reactants, then a shift is observed in the reaction in order to counteract the change and retain the chemical equilibrium.

Lewis Acid: Lewis acid is that substance of a chemical compound which readily accepts lone pair of electrons to complete its octet.

Lewis Base: Lewis base is a substance that has a lone pair of electron which can be donated during bond formation.

Ligand: A ligand is a particle (atom or molecule or ion) which bonds with a central atom for the formation of coordination complex.

Litmus Paper: A narrow strip of paper that acts as acid-base indicator. When dipped into acid solution a blue litmus paper turns red, on the other hand if a red litmus paper is put into a base solution it becomes blue.

M

Magnetic Quantum Number (mc): The magnetic quantum number of an atomic orbital gives an account of its orientation in space.

Mass Number: The number of neutrons and number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is added together to give its mass number.

Melting Point: The range of temperature at which any given solid substance gets converted into liquid state is called melting point.

Metals: Those substances whose atoms are ready to lose electrons and form cations are known as metals. Physically, they are characterized as lustrous and malleable substances with good heat and electrical conductivity. Read more on: metals.

Metalloids: Those elements in the periodic table, that exhibit intermediate properties of both metals as well as non metals are known as metalloids.

Mixture: A substance formed as a result of physical combination of two or more substances. In a mixture, each component can maintain its individual identity.

Moderator: In a nuclear reactor, a moderator is an intervening substance that helps in bringng down the speed of fast moving neutrons during nuclear fission.

Molality: Molality is a unit of concentration used to measure the concentration of a solute in one kilogram of solvent substance.

Molarity: Molarity of a solution can be described as the measure of the quantity of solute substance, present in one liter of the given solvent.

Mole: A basic unit used to quantify the amount of a chemical substance. In other words, it is the number of molecules present in one gram molecular weight of any given substance.

Molecule: A small, neutrally charged particle formed as a result of chemical bonding between two or more atoms.

N

Natural Gas: A gas with high methane content, found along with various fossil fuels and is used as a fuel. Read more on: natural gas.

Neon: A noble gas element found rarely on the surface of the Earth but is abundantly found in the Universe. To know more read on: neon: the element and uses of neon.

Neutralization: A chemical reaction that takes place between an acidic and basic substance and leads to the formation of salt and water, is called neutralization.

Neutrino: A high-speed, neutrally charged, tiny particle with negligible mass, formed because of some radioactive decay.

Neutron: A sub atomic particle with no electrical charge, present in the nucleus of an atom.

Noble Gases (Rare Gases): Those elements that belong to the group 18 of the periodic table are called noble gases. They are - helium, neon, argon, krypton etc. All of them are found in the form of monatomic gases and are chemically less reactive.

Nonmetals: A class of chemical elements that do not have the characteristics of metallic substances.

Nonpolar Bond: A type of covalent bond where the electrical charge is evenly distributed.

Nuclear Energy :The energy generated as a result of splitting or fusion of the nuclei is known as nuclear energy. To know more read on: nuclear energy.

Nuclear Fission: A type of nuclear reaction where the nucleus of an heavy element is split up to form lighter nuclei and a large number of free electrons and gamma rays are released in the process.

Nuclear Fusion: A type of nuclear reaction where nuclei of two atoms that are light in weight, combine together to form a heavier nucleus, resulting in release of high amount of energy. To learn more about nuclear fusion read: what is nuclear fusion.

Nuclear Reaction: A phenomena that brings about alteration in the nucleus of an atom and is accompanied by energy-change in large scale is called nuclear reaction.

Nucleons: Those particles that constitute the nucleus of an atom. In other words, protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons.

Nucleus: The densest part of an atom located at its center which contains protons and neutrons is called nucleus. For more information refer to: structure of an atomic nucleus.

O

Octet Rule: According to octet rule, during the formation of a chemical bond, the atoms of the combining elements tend to attain eight electrons in their outermost orbit.

Olefin Fiber: A large chain of hydrocarbon compounds prepared by polymerization of alkenes. It is very popularly used in the manufacture of clothing, textiles etc.

Orbital: An orbital is a specific part within an atom where a pair of electrons with opposite spins are present.

Organic Compound: A class of chemical compounds that consists of hydrocarbons.

Osmosis: The process by which the solvent molecules of a solution, move from a higher concentration region to a lower concentration region, through a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.

Ostwald Process: It is a method used for the production of nitric acid industrially, by using ammonia and oxygen.

Oxidation Half Reaction: That half of a redox reaction where loss of electrons takes place. In this half, the oxidation number of the reactant atoms increases.

Oxidation Numbers: Also referred to as oxidation state. It represents numerically, the magnitude of oxidation of any given atom in a compound.

Oxidizing Agent: A chemical substance that undergoes reduction in order to oxidize another reactant, during a chemical reaction is known as oxidizing agent.

P

Partial Pressure: In a mixture of gases, the partial pressure is the pressure exerted by one individual gas, when it occupies the entire volume.

Pauli Exclusion Principle: Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons of an atom can have similarity in the values of their four quantum numbers.

Periodic Law: According to the periodic law, as the atomic number of the elements increase, certain behaviors tend to repeat systematically after regular intervals.

Periodic Table: In a periodic table, elements are arranged in accordance with their increasing atomic number. It provides us with all required information related to the elements. To get more information about periodic table read: history of periodic table.

Periodic Trend: The tendency of the elements to change certain properties, as we move from one side of the periodic table to another is described as periodic trend.

pH: pH is the scale used to measure the acid or base properties of a given solution.

Photochemistry: The study based upon the chemical reactions that occur with the help of light is known as photochemistry.

Photon: A primary particle that forms the basic unit of various forms of electromagnetic radiations, including light. It shows dual properties of both a wave as well as a particle.

Physical Property: That aspect of any substance which can be evaluated without bringing any change to its chemical structure is known as physical property.

Planck's Constant: Planck constant is a proportionality constant that is used to express the relationship between the energy and frequency of an electromagnetic radiation.

Polar Bond: A type of covalent bond where there is an uneven distribution of charges is called polar bond.

Polymer: A large chain of molecule, formed as a result of repeatability of the basic structural units, where each unit is attached with the other by means of covalent bonds is called a polymer.

Polymerization: The process where the smaller units of molecules are combined to form a large three-dimensional structure of polymer chains is called polymerization.

Positron: A tiny particle produced and released during a radioactive decay. It carries a single positive charge and its mass is equal to that of an electron.

Propane: An organic compound that consists of three carbon atoms which are bonded with each other by single bonds. It is found as a colorless, odorless gas and is highly inflammable in nature. Get more information on propane in: facts about propane.

Q

Quantum Theory: Also called quantum mechanics, it is a set of theory that deals with the behavior of different objects at the atomic and subatomic level. To learn more on this read: basic of quantum physics and basics of quantum mechanics for dummies.

Qualitative Analysis: Qualitative analysis is the identification of the components that are present in a particular compound or mixture with unknown composition.

Quantitative Analysis: A form of chemical analysis which helps to ascertain the amount of a particular component present in a given sample.

Quantum Number: Numbers that are used for the quantization of the energy levels of the electrons present in an atom are known as quantum numbers.

R

Radioactive Dating: A method used for calculating the age of various naturally occurring or man-made ancient objects, with the help of the half life constant of the radioactive element present in them.

Radioactivity:The phenomena of disintegration of the nuclei of unstable atoms, that results in loss of energy in the form of different types of radiations like alpha and beta particles, gamma rays etc. is known as radioactivity. To know more read on: radioactivity.

Radioisotope: Radioisotope is an atom that has a highly unstable nucleus which causes radioactive decay and leads to radioactive emissions. Get more information on the radioactive isotopes on: list of radioactive elements..

Raoult's Law: The law states that in an ideal solution in the equilibrium state, the total vapor pressure depends on the vapor pressure of every individual component and their mole fractions in the solution.

Rare Earth Elements: A set of elements that are positioned in those two periods (or rows) of periodic table that are detached from its main body. For more information read more on: rare earth elements.

Rate of Reaction: During a chemical reaction, rate of reaction can be defined as the pace at which the conversion of the reactants into products takes place.

Reactants: In a chemical reaction, those chemical substances that are used up to form the final products are known as reactants.

Reaction Kinetics: Also known as reaction kinetics, it is the study of the rate at which a chemical reaction takes place.

Reagent: A reagent is a chemical which when added during a chemical reaction helps in producing, detecting and measuring other substances.

Redox Reaction: A chemical reaction where both reduction and oxidation processes take place due to exchange of electrons between participating atoms.

Reducing Agent: A chemical substance that oxidizes itself for the reduction of another reactant, in a chemical reaction is known as reducing agent.

Reduction: The chemical process that involves gaining of electrons by an atom or an ion.

Reversible Reaction: The chemical reaction that takes place both in the forward as well as in the backward direction.

Roasting: Roasting is a common chemical process that is used to extract metals from their sulfide ores. It involves, heating of the ore at high temperature in presence of atmospheric oxygen, in order to get rid of the sulfide. This way, the metal is obtained either in a free state or in the form of an oxide.

S

Salt: Salt is a chemical compound obtained by the neutralization of acidic and basic substances. Table salt that we use at home is also produced by the neutralization of acid and base. To know more read on: salt.

Saturated Hydrocarbons: The most simplest forms of hydrocarbon compounds, where all the carbon atoms are bonded to each other with the help of single bonds only.

Saturated Solution: A solution where the solvent is in a completely saturated state and cannot dissolve additional amount of solute into it.

Second Law of Thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics states that in any cyclic process, it is impossible to convert hundred percent of the heat energy into work.

Single Bond: A type of chemical bond that consists of only one shared pair of electrons in between two atoms.

Solute: The substance which is present in a dissolved state in a solution is called solute.

Solvent: In a solution, the substance in which the solute substances can get dissolved is known as solvent.

Stoichiometry: The branch of chemistry that deals with the measurement of the quantities of reactants and products of a chemical reaction is called stoichiometry.

Structural Formula: When the structure of the molecule of a compound is represented in graphical form, it is known as structural formula.

Structural Isomers: Compounds that have same set of atoms with same molecular formula, but are arranged in different geometrical patterns are known as structural isomers.

Substitution Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a functional group present in a given chemical compound is substituted by a new group.

T

Ternary Acid: An acidic substance that consists of three different elements. Usually, it contains one hydrogen atom, one oxygen atom and a nonmetal.

Ternary Compound: A chemical compound that is made up of three different elements

Tetrahedral Tetrahedral: Describes the shape of a molecule, where one atom at the center is bonded with four atoms placed in the four vertices of a tetrahedron.

Thermal Cracking: The process by which organic molecules with complex structures are broken down into simpler forms, by heating them without the presence of atmospheric oxygen, under the influence of a catalyst.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium: A system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when the energy gained by it from the surroundings is perfectly balanced with the energy lost to the environment. In other words, in a thermodynamic equilibrium condition the temperature of a system remains constant.

Third Law of Thermodynamics: The third law of thermodynamics states that at absolute zero temperature, the entropy of an element in a perfect crystalline form would become zero.

Titrant: A titrant is a chemical reagent with known concentration, which is added to the analyte during the process of titration, in order to calculate the concentration of the analyte in the solution.

Titration: It is a common laboratory technique used for the calculation of the concentration of a reactant, in different types of chemical reactions.

Transition State: Transition state theory assumes, that during a chemical reaction, the reactants are first changed into a highly activated transition state and then they get converted into the final products.

Triple Bond: A type of covalent bond where three pairs of electrons are shared between the bonding atoms.

Tritium: An isotope of hydrogen that has an unstable nucleus and hence, exhibits radioactive properties. It has a heavy nucleus that contains two neutrons and one proton.

Tyndall Effect: When a ray of light passes through a colloidal substance, it gets scattered by the tiny, suspended particles of the colloid. This scattering effect of light is called Tyndall effect.

U

Unimolecular Reaction: A type of chemical reaction where only one single molecule is involved. The molecule usually undergoes decomposition or isomerization or rearrangement due to this process.

Unit Cell: A simple arrangement of atoms or molecules which is repeated to develop a solid crystal structure is called unit cell.

Universal Indicator: It is an indicator that changes its colors through a large range of pH values of the pH chart, for identification of acidic or basic nature of different solutions.

Unpaired Spin: Unpaired spin is referred to as the single electron that fills up an orbital of an atom. The characteristic of an unpaired spin is that it is highly unstable and tends to react to form a paired electron.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: A type of organic compound that consists of one or more number of double or triple bonds between the carbon atoms.

V

Valency: Valency is a chemical property of an element, that defines the highest number of bonds that its atom can form with other univalent atoms like hydrogen, chlorine etc.

Valence Bond Theory: Valence bond theory describes the formation of bond in a molecule. It states that partially-filled atomic orbitals of different atoms overlap with each other in order to form covalent bonds.

Valence Electrons: Those electrons that are present in the outermost orbit of an atom and participate in the formation of chemical bonds are called valance electrons.

Valence Shell: The outermost electron orbit of an atom is known as valence shell. The electrons of valence shell take part in chemical reactions to form bonds.

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory: Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model that deals with the shape, which a molecule will acquire after the formation of a chemical bond. It states that the atoms in a particular molecule assume a particular shape, in order to keep maximum distance between the electron pairs, so that, the repulsive forces between them can be minimum.

Van der Waals Force: The force of attraction or repulsion that exists between the non-bonded parts of a molecule. For example - the forces between dipole-dipole or induced dipole-induced dipole etc.

Vapor Pressure: The pressure exerted by the vapor of a substance, when at equilibrium with its non vaporous phases is known as vapor pressure.

Vitrification: The process involved in the conversion of a substance from crystalline form to glass with amorphous structure is known as vitrification.

Voltaic Cells: A kind of electrochemical cell where two different metals are linked and are submerged in a fluid with high electrical conductivity. Voltaic cells generate electricity with the help of chemical reactions.

Vulcanization: A special chemical process, where rubber is treated with sulfur and other chemical substances under high temperature, so that they combine with the rubber to enhance its strength and elasticity is called vulcanization.

W

Water: Water is a colorless, odorless, transparent liquid substance. Its molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It acts as an excellent solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent.

Water Gas: A type of gaseous fuel made up of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. It is a highly combustible substance and requires careful handling.

Water Hardness (or hard water): When the water gets contaminated with a high content of cations of various metals, like magnesium, calcium etc. in dissolved state, then it is called water hardness. Hard water often forms layers in boilers, water pipes etc. It also reduces the cleaning effect of soaps and detergents.

Water of Crystallization: The water that is found along with solid crystals but is not chemically bonded with any of the ions or molecules of the crystals is known as the water of crystallization.

Water Softener: The chemical substances which when added to water, help in the removal of the ions that cause hardness of water are known as water softeners. Sodium carbonate or washing soda is an excellent water softener. These chemicals are used in the water softening systems. To know more read on: water softeners - how they work and water softeners - basics of water softening systems.

Wax: Wax is a form of lipid substance that is made up of long-chains of a large variety of hydrocarbon compounds. They include alkanes, alcohols, esters, fatty acids etc. Due to the presence of ester in it, wax has a very high melting point.

Weak Acid: A weak acid is the one, which does not get dissociated completely into anions and hydrogen ions in its solution.

Weak Base: A basic substance that gets only partly ionized in an aqueous solution is called a weak base.

Weak Electrolyte: A substance that does not produce sufficient free ions in its solution form, as the ions do not get dissociated completely. As a result, a weak electrolyte in solution form or molten state is not a good conductor of electricity.

Wurtz reaction: It is a reaction where coupling of two molecules of alkyl halides takes place, when they are reacted with sodium and a new alkane is formed as a result.

X

X-Group: In an organic compound, X group defines the presence of a halogen group in it. It is used to define the structural formula of the compound.

Xenon: A noble gas element whose atomic number is 54. Chemically, it is denoted by Xe. It is a heavy gas and does not have any color and odor of its own.

Y

Yield: It is often termed as reaction yield or chemical yield. The actual quantity of a product that is being produced in any chemical reaction is called yield.

Ytterbium: It is a rare earth element that belongs to the lanthanide series of the periodic table. Its atomic number is 70 and is denoted by the chemical symbol Yb.

Yttrium: A transition metal that belongs to Group 3 of the periodic table. Chemically, it is represented with the letter Y. The atomic number of yttrium is 39.

Z

Zaitsev Rule: As per the rule, when a number of alkenes are formed due to dehalogenation, caused by an elimination reaction, then the alkene which is more stable in nature will be the major product of the reaction.

Zeolite: A solid, mineral substance with numerous tiny pores on its surface. Due to the pores, it has a high adsorption power and is commercially used as adsorbents.

Zero Order Reaction: A chemical reaction which does not depend on the concentration of the reactants is known as zero order reaction.

Zero Point Energy: The least energy possessed by an atom in its ground state. It can also be defined as the quantity of energy that exists in a vacuum space.

Zinc: Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, metallic substance. It is the first member of the Group 12 of the periodic table. Atomic number of zinc is 30 and it is represented by Zn. Learn more on this metal on: zinc.

Zirconium: Zirconium is a transition metal with a grayish white color. It shows strong resistance towards corrosion and therefore, is used in various alloys.

Zone Refining: A technique used for purification of substances, that require high amount of purity. For this, a narrow molten zone is moved along the length of the solid, accumulating the impurities in the molten zone which are then carried to the end of the bar.

Zwitterion: Zwitterion is a chemical compound whose net charge is zero and hence is electrically neutral. But there are some positive and negative charges in it, due to the formal charge, owing to the partial charges of its constituent atoms.

I am sure this article has provided you with enough relevant information and I would also like you to go through this: Glossary of Science Terms and Scientific Definitions.

Adsorption is a surface of phenomenon of attraction and retention of the molecules of adsorbate on the adsorbent leading to a higher concentration of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent. A theoretical concept introduced at Grade K-11-12 Chemistry classes can be studied as a laboratory experiment. It impresses the concept of adsorption as a surface phenomenon.

The substance adsorbed is termed as an adsorbate while the surface on which the substance is adsorbed is called the adsorbent. An example that demonstrates this phenomena is water vapor adsorbed by dry silica gel. This is in contrast to absorption wherein the substance is uniformly distributed into the bulk of the solid/liquid, for example anhydrous calcium chloride absorbs moisture. Adsorption can be negative or positive - When the concentration of the adsorbate is larger on the surface of the adsorbent than in the bulk, it is positive adsorption. In contrast, if the concentration of the adsorbate on the surface is less relative to its concentration in the bulk, it is called negative adsorption. Like surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy.

A molecule in the interior of a liquid/solid is completely surrounded by other molecules on all sides and hence the intermolecular forces of attraction are exerted equally in all directions. However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are not wholly surrounded by other adsorbent atoms and therefore experience some net inward force of attraction. Because of these unbalanced inward forces, liquids and solids have the property to attract and retain molecules of a gas or a dissolved substance onto their surfaces with which they come in contact.

For adsorption, ∆H, the enthalpy change is negative, as molecules of the adsorbate are held on the surface of the solid adsorbent, entropy decreases i.e. ∆S is also negative. Since ∆G = ∆H - T∆S for the process of adsorption to occur spontaneously, ∆G must be negative which is possible only when ∆H>T∆S in magnitude. This is true in the initially, but as the reaction proceeds, ∆H keeps on decreasing and T∆S keeps on increasing till ∆H = T∆S so that ∆G = 0. This state is called adsorption equilibrium. There are two well established types of adsorption isotherm viz. the Freundlich adsorption isotherm and the Langmuir adsorption isotherm.

The Freundlich equation or Freundlich adsorption isotherm is an adsorption isotherm, which is a curve relating the concentration of a solute on the surface of an adsorbent, to the concentration of the solute in the liquid with which it is in contact. The first mathematical expression for an isotherm was published by Freundlich and Küster (1894) and is a purely empirical formula for gaseous adsorbates.

x/m= Kc 1/n
where,
x is the quantity adsorbed
m is the mass of the adsorbent
c = Equilibrium concentration of adsorbate in solution.

k and n are empirical constants for each adsorbent-adsorbate pair at a given temperature. The function has an asymptotic maximum as pressure increases without bound. As the temperature increases, the constants k and n change to reflect the empirical observation that the quantity adsorbed rises more slowly and higher pressures are required to saturate the surface. The chemistry project on Freundlich’s adsorption isotherm uses activated carbon is used as an adsorbent. Adsorbents must have high abrasion resistance, high thermal stability and small pore diameters, which results in higher exposed surface area and hence high surface capacity for adsorption. Five stoppered bottles containing different concentrations of acetic acid were prepared. To each powdered activated charcoal was added. The mixture was allowed to stand for half and hour with occasional shaking. It was titrated against sodium hydroxide using phenolpthalein as the indicator. A Freundlich adsorption isotherm of x/m vs concentration of acetic acid gives a sigma shaped profile.

Acknowledgements- The experimental work was carried out by Sai Phaltankar and Swadha Das Guru of Grade 12 of R.N. Podar CBSE School Santa Cruz(W).

The term biology is taken from the Greek word "bios" meaning life and "logos" meaning study. Biology is the science that studies about the life of various living organisms. A living organism could be a one-celled bacteria or a several-celled organism such as animals and plants. Biological science is classified into various branches depending on the study of the organisms and is a vast field. Here we look at some of the branches of biology.

Different Branches of Biology

Botany: The study of plant life or phytology is known as botany. It is one of the prominent branches of biology. Botany is a vast subject and studies the life and development of the fungi, algae and plants. Botany also probes into the structure, growth, diseases, chemical and physical properties, metabolism and the evolution of the plant species. Botany implies the importance of study of plant life on earth because they generate food fibers, medicines, fuel and oxygen.

Zoology: This is a branch of biology that studies about animals. The term zoology originated from the Greek term "Zoon" meaning animal and "logos" meaning study. Zoology as a branch of biology deals with the structure and function of animal bodies including human beings. Zoology studies not only the structure of organisms, but also the sub-cellular unit of life. Zoology is an important field of biology, that is diverse and complex. Aristotle and Charles Darwin are prominent zoologists.

Ecology: Ecology is a branch of biology that studies the interaction of various organisms with one another, and their chemical and physical environment. This branch of biology studies environmental problems such as pollution and how it affects the eco-cycle. The term ecology is derived from the Greek term "oikos" meaning "household" and "logos" meaning "study". A German biologist, Ernst Haeckel, coined the term ecology in 1866.

Genetics: This is considered to be an interesting field of study and is a branch of biology. Genetics is the study of genes. This term is derived from the Greek word "genetikos" meaning "origin". This branch of biology studies about the hereditary aspects of all living organisms. The study of inheritance of traits from the parent was begun in the mid-nineteenth by a renowned biologist Gregor Mendel. The modern science of genetics is based on the foundation laid by this biologist.

Biochemistry: This branch of biology studies the chemical processes in all living organisms. Biochemistry is a branch of science that studies the functions of the cellular components such as nucleic acids, lipids, proteins and various other biomolecules. Today, biochemistry is one of the upcoming branches of biology.

Marine biology: Marine biology studies about the ecosystems of the oceans, its animals and plants. There is a vast ocean life that is still unexplored. You can rightly say marine biology is a branch of oceanography, which is again a branch of biology.

Biology as a science gives us the opportunity to make observations, evaluate and solve problems that are related to plants and animals. If you are interested in biology, pursuing a career in any of the branches of biology could be immensely rewarding.

Biology is the branch of science that deals with the study of living organisms and their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution as well their interactions with environment. If you are home schooling your children or want them to conduct some interesting experiments at home, then here are some interesting home biology experiments that you can try at home:

Home Biology Experiments

Home biology experiments can be a fun way to spend time with your child and make the process of education more interesting and interactive. If your child finds biology boring, then home biology experiments are an excellent way to make biology interesting for your kids! Here is an easy to conduct home biology experiments, which will ensure that your kids will not only be well versed in theoretical knowledge but would also have hands on experience at the practical knowledge.

Hydroponics Plant Growth

Well, instead of just introducing your children to the miracle of a plant growing from a seed, how abut introducing your child to the world of hydroponics as well. Hydroponics makes use of inert nutrient media for growth of plants. For conducting this experiment at home you need to get plant nutrients in their ionic form. There are two types of nutrients that you will require – the micronutrients and the macronutrients. The macronutrients that you need are calcium, magnesium, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur and potassium. Commonly used chemicals for obtaining these nutrients are potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate, magnesium sulfate and calcium nitrate. The micronutrients that you require are elements like Iron, Manganese, Copper, Zinc Chlorine, Nickel and Boron, which are usually available in water-based solvents. Under adult supervision, ask the children to create the nutrient medium by mixing the inert material and the nutrients. Ask the children to place the seeds/seedling in the medium. Now ask the children to maintain a record of the growth of the plant in the nutrient medium and also inform them about various nutrients that are in the medium. Explain the role of each nutrient as well. This is an excellent way to combine theory and practical knowledge in biology.

Have a look at some more science experiment ideas.

Science, the effort to discover how the physical world works, can best be understood through experiments. Experimentation is, in fact, an excellent way to comprehend any new subject. It is the means to demonstrate natural processes in order to gain an understanding of their occurrence. Biology is one of the different branches of science, which deals with the scientific study of living beings. Writing about biology experiment ideas made me go down memory lane to my school days when we used to spend hours in the laboratory learning interesting biological processes. Thanks to our science teachers, we could learn the subject through simple and interesting experiments. Let us take a look at some biology experiment ideas and try to explore some of the different branches of biology.

Biology Experiment Ideas

Experiment 1
As you all might know, plants need sunlight for growth. Photosynthesis, one of the vital processes occurring in plants, needs sunlight. This phenomenon can be demonstrated through a simple experiment. All you need for this experiment is a pair of potted plants. Place one of the plants near the window of your classroom, so that it gets enough sunlight throughout the day. Place the other potted plant away from the source of light and see the difference. Interestingly, you will notice that the plant that was kept away from the window has turned towards sunlight. This is known as phototropism. This observation is sufficient to explain the importance of sunlight for plants. Isn’t it?

Experiment 2
Have you seen how seeds germinate? I am sure you would like to, in case you haven’t. For this experiment, you will need some seeds. You can choose a bowl full of beans of peas and get ready to see them sprout! Soak the seeds in water and then place them in moist soil. With passing time, you will see them germinate and gradually grow into shoots. This is one of those experiments that even kids can perform with ease. You may like to go through other such simple biology experiments for kids.

Experiment 3
Have you ever thought of being able to detect blood group compatibility through an easy experiment? You will need a well-equipped laboratory for this experiment and it is advisable to perform it under the supervision of your biology teacher. Collect samples of blood belonging to different blood groups. Work on one sample at a time. Mix the sample with different reagents containing one of the three antibodies, namely, A, B or Rh. If blood agglutinates in a certain mixture, it means that the blood has reacted with the antibodies contained in that mixture and is not compatible with blood containing that antibody.

Experiment 4
Vermicomposting is known as being a very complex process that is often carried out on a large scale. But it can be carried out in a bin on a smaller scale and turn out being an interesting experiment that tells you why earthworms are known as farmers’ friends! For this experiment, you will need a bin made of plastic, wood or metal with a removable lid. See that the bin has holes in the sides to enable flow of air. You will need to maintain a temperature within a range of 12 and 21 degrees Celsius in the bin. Prepare a bedding of soil, dried leaves and kitchen waste to provide the worms with their natural habitat. Observe the behavior of the earthworms in this controlled environment. They turn the layers of soil upside down, thus increasing the aeration in soil. Their excreta increase the nitrogen content of soil and also its fertility.

These were some of the experiments that can make biology interesting. You can come up with many such biology experiment ideas, if you are a keen observer of nature. It is our natural environment, which provides us with the ‘apparatus’ to ‘experiment’!

Abstract

"Human cells and computers process and store information in much the same way. Computer stores data in strings made up of the numbers 0 and 1. Living things store information with molecules represented the letters A,T,C and G." – Adleman

Introduction

Reading James Watson’s textbook " Modecular Biology of the Gene" (1953), Adleman , Univiersity of Southern California computer scientist found a way towards DNA computing.

Dr. Adleman an "Inventor of DNA computers" published details of DNA computing in issue of Journal Science in 1994 first time and made world wondering on living computer.

Here is a look on the invention of new generation of computers.

What is basis?

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

DNA is what makes up your genes and stores all the information about you inside your cells.

" DNA is the molecule that encodes and carries genetic information. It is a structural plan for proteins. DNA is a double-stranded molecule held together by weak bonds between base pairs of nucleotides. The four nucleotides in DNA contain the bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). One oxygen atom is missing in the sugar content of the nucleotide - thus the prefix "deoxy". In nature, base pairs form only between A and T and between G and C; thus the base sequence of each single strand can be deduced from that of its partner."

DNA has a unique data structure. Above definition clearly explains strand of DNA. Nucleotides (bases) are spaced every 0.35 nanometers along the DNA molecule, giving data density of 18 Mbits per inch.

Performance of DNA computing

In bacteria, DNA can be replicated at a rate of about 500 base pairs a second. It is nearly 10 times faster tan human cells with low error rates. That comes to 1000 bits per second. The feature of replication enzymes can start on the second replicated strand of DNA even before they are finished copying the first one. So rate is nearly of 2000 bits per second. With each additional strand data rate increases by 1000 bits per second.

Iteration speeds up data rate. After 10 iterations DNA is being replicated at a rate of about 1 Mbit per second. After 30 iterations it increases to 1000 Gbits per second.

More than 10 trillion DNA molecules can fit into an area no larger than 1 cubic centimeter (0.06 cubic inches). DNA computer is capable enough to hold 10 terabytes of data with performance of 10 trillion calculations at a time.

In simple words, DNA computers can perform an amazing number of calculations simultaneously; specifically, on the order of 10^9 calculations per mL of DNA per second! That’s how its effective density is roughly 100,000 times greater than modern hard disks.

"A single strand of DNA does not yield much power. But DNA can be replicated, so that you can have as much DNA as you need to perform incredibly difficult tasks. And the strange property of a DNA computer is that it can test all the solutions simultaneously - a truly parallel task." - Tormod Guldvog (Hypography Sci-Tech)

Any transistor base computers generally handle operations in a sequential manner. A von Neumann machine (Modern CPUs) repeats "fetch and execute" cycle over and over again. Where as DNA computers are non-von Neuman. In DNA computer power comes from memory capacity and parallel processing.

However, DNA computing is still very much a dream for scientists. They hope to harness the enormous data-storing capacity of DNA, biological molecules that are also able to perform operations similar to silicon computers.

Hamiltonian Path problem

Hamiltonian path problems is a classic mathematical problem of " traveling salesman" where one needs to find how a salesman can visit number of cities without passing through any city twice. It is very simple if numbers of cities are less. But it becomes difficult for any silicon computers to find out when numbers of cities increases.

Adleman used standard molecular biology techniques to solve by exploiting the predictability of how DNA interacts. He first generated all the possible itineraries and then selected the correct itinerary. This is the advantage of DNA. It’s small and there are combinatorial techniques that can quickly generate many different data strings.

A recent experiment says, "DNA computer can solve the problem for up to 15 cities."

Inventing future computer

Weizmann System

Until now, DNA processors have needed intensive tending and have been limited to specific problems. Israeli scientists Ehud Shapiro and colleagues have designed Weizmann System that uses DNA to carry out any calculation and require little human intervention. The system emulates a Turing machine, which is one of the fundamental concepts in computing. Such a machine examines data step by step, making decisions on what to do next based on that data. In theory, any Turing machine can do any computing problem. In nature, DNA molecules work in a very similar way, unzipping and recombining according to information coded into sequences of chemicals. – Journal of Nature

Team of Israeli scientists used DNA to create a programmable computer that's smaller than a drop of water.

"The long-term goal is to eventually create autonomous, programmable molecular computing devices that can operate in vivo, eventually inside the human body, and function as 'doctors in a cell" - Ehud Shapiro, a computer scientist (Weizmann Institute of Science).
DNA Computer for Gene Analysis

Olympus Optical Co. Ltd. has developed what the company says is the first commercially practical DNA computer that specializes in gene analysis. The computer was developed in conjunction with Akira Toyama, an assistant professor at Tokyo University

The new computer is divided into two sections: a molecular calculation component and an electronic calculation component. The former calculates DNA combinations of molecules, implements chemical reactions, searches, and pulls out the right DNA results. The latter executes processing programs and analyzes these results. The company will start gene analysis using the DNA computer on a trial basis for a year, and hopes to offer the service on a commercial basis for researchers in 2003.

Cracking codes.

A 'DNA computer' has been used for the first time to find the only correct answer from over a million possible solutions to a computational problem. Leonard Adleman of the University of Southern California in the US and colleagues used different strands of DNA to represent the 20 variables in their problem, which could be the most complex task ever solved without a conventional computer. The researchers believe that the complexity of the structure of biological molecules could allow DNA computers to outperform their electronic counterparts in future.

Maya: Playing tic-tac-toe
Scientists have built a DNA computer to play tic-tac-toe. MAYA, the DNA computer, is the brainchild of Milan Stojanovic, from Columbia University, and Darko Stefanovic of the University of New Mexico

It is just a beginning

"DNA would ultimately replace silicon chips. A single gram of dried DNA, about the size of a half-inch sugar cube, can hold as much information as a trillion compact discs. I'm just not sure how!" - Adelman

Reference and Further Readings

- Adleman, L.M., Molecular computation of solutions to combinatorial problems, Science, 226 (1994), 1021-1024

- Journal reference: " Nature Biotechnology"

- "New Scientist"- Magazine

- DNA computer plays tic-tac-toe By Michael Stroh, The Baltimore Sun, August 18, 2003; Robert S. Boyd, Knight Ridder Newspapers, August 18, 2003

DNA Computing A Primer By Will Ryu

Olympus develops DNA computer By Kuriko Miyake, IDG News Service

DNA computer’ cracks code By Katie Pennicott,PhysicsWeb.

How DNA Computers Will Work by Kevin Bonsor